1. Introduction介紹

These literatures are about learning habits and second language learning. Learning habits include attitude (self-confidence and learning attitude); Reading Habits; Behavior(Autonomy and Time-management)；Study Environment.

While Second Language Learning includes Second learning attitude and learning method. As well as there are some literatues about comparisions of Learning Habits and Second Language Learning and Gende and Nationality.

2. Findings發現

2.1 Attitude 

Learning attitudes include self-confidence and learning attitude, reading habits, behavior (autonomy and time-management), as well as study environment.學習態度包括自信和學習的態度，閱讀習慣，行為（自主性和時間管理） ，以及學習環境。

達爾文·D·余（ 2011）在他的研究“做了多少的學習習慣，技能和態度情感在介紹學院會計課程學生表現？ ”發現，這項研究發現，數學能力，英語水平，高中會計和學術資質影響會計業績

Darwin D. YU (2011) in his research “How Much Do Study Habits, Skills, and Attitudes Affect Student Performance in Introductory College Accounting Courses?” finds out that The study found that math proficiency, English proficiency, high school accounting, and academic aptitude influence accounting performance, supporting the findings of many previous researches on cognitive factors.Among the SHSA factors, only student perception of teacher effectiveness and level of effort influence accounting performance. Time spent studying, attendance in review classes conducted in tutorial centers, motivation, and study habits have no significant effect. Upon further analysis comparing high and low performers, study habits show up to be significant as well. In particular, students who performed better are those who did more in terms of reading ahead, doing their homework, participating in class, and cramming for exams. 

MIGUEL áNGEL SANCHO GARGALLO (2013) in “Autonomy and Pluralism in the Education System: A Case Study of Spanish Public Schools in the International Context” find out that As governments strive to improve outcomes in education, and

respond to the needs of an ever more diverse population, autonomy has gained increased prominence in national and international spheres. In the context of education, autonomy refers to the decision-making capacity of a school, and to the manner and areas over which those decisions can be made. In this case study of the Spanish education system and policies, we examine the level of autonomy of public schools, producing insights applicable far beyond this country. We conduct a scrutiny of Constitutional, regulative, and international frameworks, as well as an examination of the latest figures from Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development education indicators (with special focus on Spain and the United States). #p#分頁標題#e#

Lili Zhang etc (2011) in “Academic delay of gratification and children’s study time allocation as a function of proximity to consequential academic goals” find out that Students (N   302) in Chinese elementary schools were assessed regarding their academic delay of gratification (ADOG) and reported the time they devoted to non-school study and playtime during an extended interval prior to taking a high-stakes final exam. Students high compared those low in ADOG were more likely to spend time studying and less time playing several weeks prior to the exam. Growth curve analyses verified, however, that this difference diminished as a function of the temporal proximity to the exam, and that the group differences were non-existent just before the exam. Associations between ADOG and students’ academic motivation and use of learning strategies replicated those obtained previously with adults in the USA. Results contribute to the general literatures on volition, homework and the dynamics of conflicting goals and action tendencies.麗麗張等（ 2011 ）在“滿足和兒童學習時間分配，接近相應的學術目標函數的學術延遲”發現，學生（N 302 ）在中國的小學進行了評估就滿足他們的學業延遲（ ADOG ）并報告說，他們之前采取高風險的期末考試專門用于非學校學習和游戲時間的延長間隔時間。

Bernd Becker (2013) in “Learning Analytics: Insights Into the Natural Learning Behavior of Our Students” thinks that the migration from traditional classrooms to online learning environments is in full effect. In the midst of these changes, a new approach to learning analytics needs to be considered. Learning analytics refers to the process of collecting and studying usage data in order to make instructional decisions that will support student success. In learning analytics, usage data can refer to a wide range of information being produced by the observed population. Researchers will data mine server logs, discussion forum posts, time stamps, or any other systematically recorded data that reflects the behavior of the users being studied (Brown 2011). He believe there are three interactive components to be studied when collecting data for learning analytics: timing, location, and population. It is important to note that there is a sense of immediacy to these components; current data are very valuable in regard to learning analytics and in-process assessment. The first step in collecting your data is to investigate these components as they relate to your group of students. Ultimately, a big picture will begin to develop about the daily learning activity of students within their network of courses.

Young-Choon Kim, Jane W Lu and Mooweon Rhee (2012) in “Learning from age difference: Interorganizational learning and survival in Japanese foreign subsidiaries” analyze that This paper extends research on experiential learning of foreign subsidiaries by exploring the temporal conditions under which a foreign subsidiary can benefit from the experience of its sister subsidiaries. Building upon organizational evolution and learning literature, we propose that differences in entry timing among sister subsidiaries provide structural conditions that bound the opportunities for inter-subsidiary learning. We argue that different entry cohorts of sister subsidiaries are beneficial to a focal subsidiary, as they provide non-redundant, complementary experience from their different operational stages, and ignite the motivation to learn. Our empirical analysis of Japanese foreign subsidiaries provides strong evidence that survival is enhanced by the experience of different entry cohorts of sister subsidiaries, but not by that of similar cohorts. Qualitative evidence also shows that multiple channels of experience exchange across sister subsidiaries lead to actual learning. We further show that the survival benefit derived from different cohorts is contingent on the level of environmental change, as well as on the level of experience of the focal subsidiary and its parent firm. This research highlights the importance of temporal heterogeneity in the internationalization process, and offers implications for the temporal strategy of multinational companies.#p#分頁標題#e#

Banjo Roxas, Martina Battisti and David Deakins (2013) “Learning, innovation and firm performance: knowledge management in small firms” discuss that This study aims to examine the relationships between managerial learning as a facet of knowledge absorption (KA), firm innovation as a facet of knowledge exploitation (KE), and performance of small firms (i.e., firms with fewer than 50 employees). It builds on the knowledge-based view of the firm and the upper echelons theory to describe the effects of KA on KE, and that of KE on firm performance, in the small-firm context. Using survey data of 1441 small firms in New Zealand, the study applies a partial least squares approach to structural equation modelling to test the main hypotheses of the study.

Donald N. Roberson, Jr., Ph.D.(2012) in “Lifestyle and Learning Habits of Croatian College Students: Self-Directed Learners” The purpose of this study was to understand more about the activities and learning habits of Croatian College students through the lens of self-directed learning. This research took place in the National Library of Zagreb University over a two year period. Researchers would ask available students for their opinion on a questionnaire; approximately 75 interviews took place. 

Norihito Furuya, Michael J Stevens, Allan Bird, Gary Oddou and Mark Mendenhall (2009) in “Managing the learning and transfer of global management competence: Antecedents and outcomes of Japanese repatriation effectiveness” This study examines predictors that lead to effective individual learning of global management competencies on expatriate assignments and the transfer (i.e., the application of those competencies) in new assignments upon repatriation. A structural equation model based on data from 305 Japanese repatriates identifies linkages from organizational support, intercultural personality characteristics, self-adjustment, and repatriation policies to outcomes of global competency learning and transfer, which in turn lead to heightened job motivation and performance.

Grace Adebisi Fayombo (2011) in “Student-Related Variables as Predictors of Academic Achievement Among Some Undergraduate Psychology Students in Barbados” thinks that This study examined some student-related variables (interest in higher education, psychological resilience and study habit) as predictors of academic achievement among 131 (M (mean) = 28.17, SD (standard deviation) = 1.61) first year psychology students in the Introduction to Developmental Psychology class in UWI (The University of the West Indies), Cave Hill Campus, Barbados. They responded to four instruments: PAT (Psychology Achievement Test), IHES (Interest in Higher Education Scale), PRS (Psychological Resilience Scale) and SHS (Study Habit Scale). Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Stepwise Multiple Regressions were conducted. Findings revealed significant positive correlations between the student-related variables and academic achievement. The student-related variables also jointly contributed 46% of the variance being accounted for in academic achievement (R-square = 0.464, which is the square of the measure of correlation and an indication that the model is fit for future prediction of academic achievement among university students) and this was found to be significant. #p#分頁標題#e#

Petra Wagner, Barbara Schober, Christiane Spiel (2008) in “Time students spend working at home for school” find out that The paper presents three studies which deal with the time students spend working at home for school. In addition, the paper focuses on the distribution of time investment over the course of a week and on the relationship between academic achievement and time spent working at home for school. In sum, 824 students with an average age of 15 years participated in the studies. Data collection was done using diaries. Data equivocally show that students invest on the average 11.7 h per week in work done at home for school. 

Jerissa de Bilde, Maarten Vansteenkiste, Willy Lens (2011) in “Understanding the association between future time perspective and self-regulated learning through the lens of self-determination theory” discuss that The present cross-sectional research examined a process underlying the positive association between holding an extended future time perspective (FTP) and learning outcomes through the lens of self-determination theory. High school students and university students (N   275) participated in the study. It was found that students with an extended FTP regulated their study behaviour on the basis of several internal motives, including feelings of guilt and shame (introjected regulation), personal conviction (identified regulation) and interest (intrinsic motivation). The association with identified regulation was strongest and the association with intrinsic motivation fell below significance when controlling for identified regulation. Moreover, introjected and identified regulation emerged as mediators accounting for the association between FTP and cognitive processing. Further, to the extent that FTP engenders an internally pressuring mode of regulation it was found to be indirectly negatively associated with determination/metacognitive strategy use. In contrast to FTP, a present fatalistic and present hedonic time-orientation yielded more negative motivational and learning correlates. The link between FTP and self-determination theory is discussed.

Manfred Hofer, Stefan Fries, Andreas Helmke, Britta Kilian, Claudia Kuhnle, Ilija Zivkovic, Richard Goellner, Tuyet Helmke (2010) in “Value orientations and motivational interference in school-leisure conflict: The case of Vietnam” find out that the experience of motivational interference during studying and leisure in a school-leisure conflict and its relationship to pupils’ value orientations were investigated in a self-report study of Vietnamese pupils (N   346, mean age   15 years). The results were compared with a combined sample consisting of pupils from nine other countries (N   2155). From a cross-cultural perspective, the mean values of the variables show that Vietnamese pupils differ with regard to their values and motivational interference from pupils in other countries. Within the Vietnamese sample, modern value orientation was positively related to decision for a studying activity in a school-leisure conflict and to experience of motivational interference during a leisure activity and negatively related to interference during studying. For post-modern value orientation, the relationships were mostly reversed. Despite differences between sample means, the consistency in the relationships between the variables across the samples indicates that the pattern of relationships can be generalized.#p#分頁標題#e#

Chia-Ju Liu, David B. Zandvliet, I.-Ling Hou (2012) in “The learning environment associated with information technology education in Taiwan: Combining psychosocial and physical aspects” find out that This study investigated perceptions of senior high school students towards the Taiwanese information technology (IT) classroom with the What Is Happening in this Class? (WIHIC) survey and explored the physical learning environment of the IT classroom using the Computerised Classroom Environment Inventory (CCEI). The participants included 2,869 students from 80 classes of senior high schools, vocational high schools and comprehensive high schools in Taiwan. This study had a mixed-method design in which both quantitative (WIHIC and CCEI scales) and qualitative (classroom observations and interview) methods were used. In order to have a cross-cultural perspective, the results of this study were also compared with the earlier findings of Zandvliet and Straker (Ergonomics 44:838–857, 2001) and Zandvliet and Fraser (Learn Environ Res 8:1–17, 2005), which involved Canadian and Australian students in IT settings. Further, we attempted to understand the influence of different gender compositions (all boys, all girls and mixed-gender classes) on students’ perceptions of the IT learning environment and students’ satisfaction with the IT course. Both the ‘Spatial environment’ of physical environments and ‘Autonomy/Independence’ of psychosocial environments were found to be indicators of students’ satisfaction with learning in IT courses, but physical variables as measured with the CCEI scales were not able to predict students’ perceptions of the psychosocial environment. 

Marlies Baeten, Katrien Struyven, Filip Dochy (2013) in “Student-centred teaching methods: Can they optimise students’ approaches to learning in professional higher education?” find out This paper investigates dynamics in approaches to learning within different learning environments. Two quasi-experimental studies were conducted with first-year student teachers (N Study 1 = 496, N Study 2= 1098) studying a child development course. Data collection was carried out using a pre-test/post-test design by means of the Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory. Study 1 compared a lecture-based learning environment with a student-centred learning environment. Results were opposite to the premise that student-centred instruction deepened student learning. Instead, the latter pushed students towards a surface approach. Study 2 investigated whether mixed learning environments consisting of lectures and case-based learning could enhance students’ approaches to learning, compared to learning environments in which either lectures or case-based learning were used. Results showed that the deep and strategic approach decreased in the lecture-based, the case-based and the alternated learning environment, in which lectures and case-based learning were used by turns, while they remained the same in the gradually implemented case-based learning environment. With respect to the surface approach, the strongest decrease was found in the latter learning environment. #p#分頁標題#e#

2.2 Second language learning

George JACOBS (2013) in “Encouraging Second Language Use in Cooperative Learning Groups” discusses whether students of second and foreign languages (hereafter, “second language” will be used to refer to both foreign and second languages) should be encouraged to use their second language (L2) with classmates when doing group activities. Reasons for both L2 and L1 (first language) use are discussed with reference to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory. Practical issues are also explored. Thereafter, the bulk of the article contains ideas about how to encourage students to use their L2 for peer interaction. Twenty-nine such ideas are explained. These are divided into five sections: a role for the L1; understanding the issue; creating a conducive climate; providing language support; and the task.

Leigh Oakes (2013) in Foreign language learning in a ‘monoglot culture’: Motivational variables amongst students of French and Spanish at an English university” thinks that The study on which this article is based investigated reasons for learning a foreign language at university in a predominantly English-speaking environment (the UK). It examined the relative importance of motivational variables as theorised in the field of second language (L2) motivation, and the effect of first language (L1) and linguistic background (English only versus other), country of birth (the UK versus other), choice of target language (French versus Spanish) and centre of study (specialist language department versus language centre). Despite the ‘monoglot culture’ that prevails in many English-speaking countries, having an English-only profile and especially being born in the UK proved to be important motivating factors in the participants’ decision to learn a foreign language. Few significant differences were found between learners of French and Spanish, which were both deemed to have continued instrumental value despite the dominance of English in the world today. The notion of ideal L2 self proved potentially more useful than traditional motivational constructs. However, it is argued that the concept would benefit from further research in particular amongst non-specialist language learners, who appear to have been largely neglected by L2 motivation theory to date, despite possibly representing the future of foreign language learning.

2.3 Comparison

Haoda Sun, John T. E. Richardson (2012) in “Perceptions of quality and approaches to studying in higher education: a comparative study of Chinese and British postgraduate students at six British business schools” find out that previous studies of ‘‘the Chinese learner’’ have confounded the effects of culture and context or have used heterogeneous samples of students. In this study, 134 British students and 207 students from mainland China following 1-year postgraduate programmes at six British business schools completed the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) and the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (RASI). The two groups yielded the same factor structure on both instruments. There were no significant differences in their scores on the CEQ. On the RASI, the British students produced higher scores on deep approach and strategic approach. These differences could not be attributed to differences in response style. In short, when British and mainland Chinese students were compared within the same educational context, their perceptions and approaches to studying showed the same underlying constructs, but in the present context Chinese students were less likely to exhibit deep or strategic approaches to studying.#p#分頁標題#e#

A Region-Theory Dialogue, L. Quayle (2013) in “Southeast Asia and the English School of International Relations” book, analyze that This book explores a dialogue. One of the protagonists is the complex web of transnational and international politics that animates the region of Southeast Asia (SEA). The other is the body of International Relations theory known as the ‘English School’ (ES). Both protagonists will be profiled in more detail below, but the initial task is to set out why such a dialogue is needed in the first place, and what it might hope to achieve.

3. Discussion

From the literature review we can reach the conclusion: 

Since student perception of teacher effectiveness strongly influences performance, it is critical that hiring and training of faculty be given utmost importance. Level of effort and good study habits also help, but not the sheer number of study hours.

Despite general declarations of autonomy, schools are granted very little decision-making capacity in practice. Regional decentralization of the system has not translated to the delegation of enough competences to schools, particularly in the areas of personal and resource management.

The positive and significant effects of three types of managerial learning, namely, practice-based, proximal, and distal learning, on innovation and on innovation in firm performance. However, the curvilinear relationships suggest rather that the effects are finite and, potentially, confounded by factors unaccounted for in the models.

The findings indicated that self-directed learning is supported by leisure activity, community of friends, and comfortable surroundings.

Additionally, it was found that interest in higher education was the best predictor of academic achievement and that psychological resilience and study habit were other significant predictors. These results were discussed in the light of improving these student-related variables for effective teaching of psychology and good academic performance.

Girls spend more time than boys. Over the course of a school week, systematic fluctuations in time spent working at home for school could be observed. Application of Configural Frequency Analyses identified gender as the moderating variable in the relationship between time investment and scholastic achievement.

Furthermore, relationships among students’ satisfaction, psychosocial environment and physical environment were quite different among students from classes with different gender compositions.

In conclusion, the added value of gradually implementing case-based learning. Nevertheless, it remains difficult to enhance the deep approach, monitoring studying, organised studying and effort management.

Children in the combined condition performed significantly better in grammar and reading after the treatment than the baseline group. The difference for vocabulary did not reach significance. Three months later, a significant effect for the combined condition was only found for reading.#p#分頁標題#e#

In conclusion, one article has situated L2 peer interaction in the context of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is one of the most researched methods in education. This suggests that appropriately planned group activities not only assist learning but that they also facilitate gains in affective variables, such as self-esteem and interethnic relations.

4. Limitation

So many literatures are about learning habits, especially self-confidence and learning attitude);Reading Habits; Behavior (Autonomy and Time-management)；Study Environment. But these do not cover all aspects of learning habits. Especially for second language learning, habits has the very important role. 

To sum up, learning habit refers to individuals in long-term learning process are influenced by many factors and gradually form relatively stable learning style preference. Its formation has a direct and indirect correlation with the individual personality, education background, growing environment. Learning habits differences affect learning strategy choice, receive information and information processing. Study of learning habits has become one of the important subjects of mutual concern of the education psychology, learning psychology, learning theory and teaching theory, and other fields. Researching learning habit is helpful for teachers in the teaching process to respect students individual differences in learning, in order to reasonably according to their aptitude; To meet the students' interest in learning and success experience; At the same time, also good for Students understand and know their own learning style and features and corresponding advantages and defects, so as to select the appropriate learning strategies consciously expand the study ideas and methods. Obviously, research results and related research in the theory of learning habit has an important guiding role in teaching practice and enlightening significance. To continue in-depth study of this field is beneficial to language education workers to the further understanding of the students in the learning style differences, thus according to their learning style preferences to integrate optimization of teaching strategy, provide the corresponding class activities, to maximize the receiving information to get knowledge, and improve the effect of teaching and learning.

 

 

References

George JACOBS, Harumi KIMURA (2013) Encouraging Second Language Use in Cooperative Learning Groups, 

Petra Stanat, Michael Becker, Jürgen Baumert, Oliver Lüdtke, Andrea G. Eckhardt (2012) Improving second language skills of immigrant students: A field trial study

evaluating the effects of a summer learning program, Learning and Instruction

Leigh Oakes (2013) Foreign language learning in a ‘monoglot culture’: Motivational#p#分頁標題#e#

variables amongst students of French and Spanish at an English university. SciVerse ScienceDirect

Manfred Hofer, Stefan Fries, Andreas Helmke, Britta Kilian, Claudia Kuhnle, Ilija Zivkovic, Richard Goellner, Tuyet Helmke (2010) Value orientations and motivational interference in school-leisure conflict: The case of Vietnam. Learning and Instruction 20 (2010) 239-249

Jerissa de Bilde, Maarten Vansteenkiste, Willy Lens (2011) Understanding the association between future time perspective and self-regulated learning through the lens of self-determination theory. Learning and Instruction 21 (2011) 332-344

Petra Wagner, Barbara Schober, Christiane Spiel(2008) Time students spend working at home for school. Learning and Instruction 18 (2008) 309-320

Grace Adebisi Fayombo(2011) Student-Related Variables as Predictors of Academic

Achievement Among Some Undergraduate Psychology Students in Barbados. US-China Education Review B 2 (2011), 280-289

Linda Quayle(2011) Southeast Asia and the English School of International Relations

A Region-Theory Dialogue. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN

Haoda Sun   John T. E. Richardson(2011) Perceptions of quality and approaches to studying in higher education: a comparative study of Chinese and British postgraduate students at six British business schools. High Educ (2012) 63:299–316

Norihito Furuya, Michael J Stevens, Allan Bird, Gary Oddou and Mark Mendenhall(2009) Managing the learning and transfer of global management competence: Antecedents and outcomes of Japanese repatriation effectiveness. Journal of International Business Studies (2009) 40, 200–215

Donald N. Roberson, Jr., Ph.D.(2012) Lifestyle and Learning Habits of Croatian College Students: Self-Directed Learners.

Banjo Roxas Martina Battisti and David Deakins (2013) Learning, innovation and firm performance: knowledge management in small firms. Knowledge Management Research & Practice (2013), 1–11

Young-Choon Kim, Jane W Lu and Mooweon Rhee (2012) Learning from age difference: Interorganizational learning and survival in Japanese foreign subsidiaries. Journal of International Business Studies (2012) 43, 719–745

BERND BECKER(2013) ELECTRONIC ROUNDUP Learning Analytics: Insights Into the Natural Learning Behavior of Our Students. Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, 32:63–67, 2013

Darwin D. YU(2011) How Much Do Study Habits, Skills, and Attitudes Affect Student Performance in Introductory College Accounting Courses?. New Horizons in Education, Vol.59, No.3 , December 2011

MIGUEL áNGEL SANCHO GARGALLO(2013) Autonomy and Pluralism in the Education System: A Case Study of Spanish Public Schools in the International Context. Journal of School Choice, 7:61–87, 2013

Lili Zhang, Stuart A. Karabenick, Shun’ichi Maruno, Fani Lauermann(2011) Academic delay of gratification and children’s study time allocation as a function of proximity to consequential academic goals. Learning and Instruction 21 (2011) 77-94