refence的要求格式
Effective
Learning Service
References and
Bibliographies
References and Bibliographies
A M E M B E R O F
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 1
Academic writing is special in an age of rapid communication. Most assignments in
higher education require you to slow the tempo and carefully explore and test out
ideas, either for their own sake or in relation to real or hypothetical situations.
This requires you to, not just present and describe ideas, but to be aware of
where they came from, who developed them - and why. Ideas, theories, models,
practices are often shaped by the social norms, values and practices prevailing at
the time and place of their origin and the student in higher education needs to be
aware of these influences. Referencing plays a role, therefore, in helping to locate
and place ideas and arguments in their historical, social, cultural and geographical
contexts.
Referencing can also help you to find your own voice in assignments, by helping
you construct essays and reports that project the way you see or perceive things,
but supported by a body of evidence that strengthens your opinions - and
converts them into arguments.
Education needs ideas, arguments and perspectives to thrive, but these have to
be tested rigorously and subjected to the critical scrutiny of others. This is done
by researching, preparing and presenting work into the public domain; a
formidable task for any writer or commentator, and one that can take years
sometimes to achieve.
Referencing is then, also about respecting and honouring the hard work of writers
and commentators . by acknowledging them in your assignments.
Colin Neville
Effective Learning Service
PREFACE
The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management is part of a UK
government funded LearnHigher project, which involves collaboration between
16 UK institutions of higher education.
The aim is to develop a resources network to enable students to gain access to
high quality learning support material produced by UK universities.
The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management has been selected to
develop resources on referencing to share with students. A website on
referencing is currently being developed, and a book on this topic: The Complete
Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism, by Colin Neville, is due to be
launched by The Open University Press in August 2007.
More information can be found on the LearnHigher project at:
www.learnhigher.ac.uk
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 2
REFERENCES and BIBLIOGRAPHIES
It is an expected academic practice that students will refer to (or cite) the#p#分頁標題#e#
sources of ideas, data and other evidence in written assignments.
This is not just practice for traditions sake; it is done for valid academic reasons.
There are four main reasons related to your academic studies why referencing is
important:
1. to support your arguments and give credibility to the information you
present in assignments;
2. to enable your tutors to check the accuracy and validity of the evidence
presented;
3. to enable your tutors and other interested readers to trace the sources you
cite and to use the same evidence for their own purposes;
4. to avoid the accusation of plagiarism.
As mentioned in the preface, referencing is also a way of acknowledging the hard
work that goes into the research, preparation, writing and revision of academic
texts. Accurate referencing is also one way of giving indirect thanks to this
invisible and invaluable effort and achievement.
More pragmatically, it also shows a tutor you have, at least, read some of the
sources listed on a reading list!
And last, but probably not least from a student perspective, accurate and
intelligent referencing will enhance a good essay and contribute to the marks you
gain. Selection of relevant evidence and accurate referencing is an important
element in the marking criterion.
This booklet will:
.. explain when to reference;
.. show you how to reference (using the Harvard Style adopted by the School of
Management);
.. give examples of different forms of referencing, including some of the less
common sources;
.. include two assignments to demonstrate referencing in action.
However, if you need help in referencing any source in any assignment, you can
contact the author of this booklet and Effective Learning Officer for the School:
Colin Neville, email: [email protected]
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 3
CONTENTS PAGES
Section 1: GENERAL INFORMATION
Difference between references and bibliographies
What to reference
When to reference
Plagiarism
Types of referencing
Principles of referencing
Harvard Style of referencing
Section 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
About citing page numbers
About using secondary sources
Citing an author published more than once in the same year
Citing non-English books
Punctuation and capitalisation in references
Undated sources
When to use multiple citations
Citations, quotations and the word count
Section 3: EXAMPLES OF CITATIONS and REFERENCING
Books
Journal articles, magazines, newspapers
TV/radio/video/audio-cassette/CD ROM
Government publications
Reports
Course manuals/lecture notes
Oral communication: interviews, telephone conversations, lectures#p#分頁標題#e#
Unpublished sources
Standards and Patents
Legal documents
Cinema and theatre
Electronic sources (Internet, Email and other)
QUIZ
EXAMPLE REPORT (1)
EXAMPLE ESSAY (2)
ANSWER TO QUIZ
ENDNOTE
FURTHER READING and REFERENCES
4
5
6-9
10-13
14
15
16-19
20
21
22
23
23-24
24
25
25
26-28
29-31
32
33
34
35
36-37
38
39
40-43
44
45-51
52
53-59
60-66
67
68
69-71
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION
WHATS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
REFERENCES AND A BIBLIOGRAPHY?
The terms References and Bibliography are often used
synonymously, but there is a difference in meaning between
them.
REFERENCES
References are the items you have read and specifically referred to (or cited) in
your assignment and your list of sources at the end of the assignment will be
headed References.
If you make a point of reading selectively, you will usually make use of everything
you read and then refer directly to it in your assignment.
In that event, it will be perfectly correct to just have a References list instead of
a Bibliography; it will certainly not go against you, and many tutors prefer you
to just have a references section, rather than a bibliography. This enables them
to quickly find in your list of references the source you cited and, if necessary,
check the validity of it for themselves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for
writing an assignment, whether or not you referred specifically to it in the
assignment.
A bibliography will, therefore, normally contain sources that you have cited in
your assignment and also those you found to be influential, but decided not to
cite. A bibliography can give a tutor an overview of which authors have influenced
your ideas and arguments even if you do not specifically refer to them.
However, dont be tempted to include items you have not read in order to impress
the tutor. If you, for example, include an item you havent actually read, the
tutor may challenge you why you have not directly referred to a particular author,
or apparently not been influenced by their work in your assignment!
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 5
You can cite references taken from a range of sources, e.g.
.. Internet
.. Notes supplied, and verbal comments made, by a lecturer
.. CD databases
.. Books written by a single-author#p#分頁標題#e#
.. Multiple edited books with contributions from a range of different authors
.. Reference books of all types
.. Legal documents
.. Articles from journals
.. Reports of various kinds, e.g. official reports from government departments,
university working papers, etc
.. Newspaper articles
.. Papers presented at conferences
.. Radio/TV/videos/audio cassette/CD Roms
.. Interview transcripts
.. Email correspondence
.. Cinema films and theatre plays
In short, most information that has been written, recorded, filmed or presented in
some way to others can potentially be used.
The important thing is to choose reliable sources that give credence, authority
and support to the ideas and arguments that you present. Your tutor will suggest
a range of reliable sources, and this will be your starting point, but you will also
be expected to look beyond the recommended reading and to search out relevant
information for yourself.
You will find, however, that recommended books and other sources will prove .
because of the accurate referencing that has gone into them . to be rich veins of
additional information. If you read a particular chapter as a starting point for
research into an assignment topic, often the references or bibliography will point
you in the right direction of other relevant reading.
WHAT TO REFERENCE
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You should cite your sources of evidence in assignments in the following
situations:
1. To give the reader the source of tables, photos, statistics and diagrams
included in your assignment. These may be items directly copied or which have
been a source of collation for you
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a
particular writer. This would include the names of authors who coined words to
label particular phenomena or situations
3. To give weight or credibility to an argument presented by you, or supported by
you, in your assignment
4. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of
agreement and support amongst commentators
5. To inform the reader of sources of direct quotations or definitions in your
assignment.
6. When paraphrasing another persons idea that you feel is particularly
significant or likely to be a subject of debate; this can include sources of
definitions you use in assignments.
7. and to avoid plagiarism.
1. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Tables, Photos, Statistics
or Diagrams Presented in Your Assignment (either copied in their
original form or collated by you)
Example:
In Britain, the proportion of employees on temporary contracts rose only
marginally between 1992 and 1998, from 5.9 per cent to 7.4 per cent, and has#p#分頁標題#e#
since fallen to 7.1 per cent in 2000 (Office for National Statistics 2000).
WHEN TO REFERENCE
To reference or not to reference,
that is the question
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Effective Learning Service 7
2. When Describing or Discussing a Theory, Model or Practice
Associated with a Particular Writer
3. To Give Weight or Credibility to an Argument Presented in Your
Assignment
4. When Giving Emphasis to a Particular Idea That Has Found a
Measure of Agreement and Support Amongst Commentators
Example:
The term instrumental or operant conditioning is associated with the
American Psychologist, B.F. Skinner (1956), and describes a process of
shaping behaviour by a variety of means that encourage and reinforce
desired behaviour, or discourage unwanted behaviour.
Example:
However, it can be argued that the corrosive social effects of workers having to
manage increasing workloads outweigh these extrinsic advantages. Handy
(1994, p.9), for example, suggests that businesses prefer to recruit half as
many people, paid twice as well and producing three times as much, with a
destructive effect on the social lives of these core workers.
Example:
As the behavioural response of communication apprehension (CA) is to avoid or
discourage interaction with others it is not surprising that CA has been linked to
feelings of loneliness, isolation, low self esteem and the inability to discuss
personal problems with managers or others (Daly and Stafford 1984; Mc
Croskey, Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977; Mc Croskey and Richmond 1987;
Richmond, 1984; Scott and Rockwell 1997).
(Note: The student cites five sources - all much saying the same thing - to
emphasise and give credibility to an important point summarised in the
assignment. The use of multiple authors can add weight to summary, particularly
if the idea is a controversial one. However, citing six authors would be the
maximum for this purpose, and citing two or three is a more usual practice).
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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5. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Direct Quotations or
Definitions in Your Assignment
Example:
Pearson (1995) however, argues that a search for a solution to ethical dilemmas
using the methods of moral philosophy has failed (p.3). He asserts that any
approach to business ethics must take full account of the business perspective and
an appreciation of business boundaries, albeit with account to the changing nature
of these.
(Note: If the quote is taken from a printed book or journal, you always need to
include the page number so the reader can go straight to that page to find it.
Lengthy quotations (over two lines) should be indented in your assignment. This#p#分頁標題#e#
means you compress the quotation, italicise it and create a one-tab margin that
distinguishes it from your own text, as per the example below. You dont need to
use quotation marks in an indented quotation).
Example of indented quotation:
Robert Reich (2001) has argued that pay is proportionate to the skill you offer in
the labour market:
If you have been in a job thats rote or routineor your job can
be done by computerized machines or by software over the Internet .
youre likely to be paid less than you used to be paid for doing it(p.32)
Reich argues that education and training can be the way forward for people
trapped in a cycle of low-skill, low-pay jobs.
USING QUOTATIONS
Try to keep quotations to a minimum in your
assignments. They can be used to good effect when:
. you feel they make a particular point.
For example, colloquial language can often be
used for contrast and effect in an academic
assignment - where the style of writing is
necessarily more cautious, formal and detached
. you want to analyse or challenge the quotation in
question
. you feel the quotation supports your own
argument or point of view
. you want to add interest or impact to an
introduction or conclusion.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 9
6. When Paraphrasing Another Persons Idea or Definition that You
Feel is Particularly Significant or Likely to be a Subject of Debate
7. One of the Reasons for Referencing is to Avoid Accusations of
Plagiarism; so read on
Example:
We all perceive the world around us in ways that are often unique to us
through a series of personal filters and we construct our own versions of
reality (Kelly 1955).
(Note: In this example, the student paraphrases an idea that Kelly
originally outlined in 1955. The inverted commas around construct suggest
this is a significant word used by Kelly to describe a key concept). By citing
the source the student is, in effect, saying this is Kellys idea; I am just
paraphrasing it, and thus avoids accusations of plagiarism.
HOWEVER, YOU DONT NEED TO REFERENCE:
. Information drawn from a variety of sources to summarise what has happened
over a period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of
dispute or controversy; for example:
The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and
technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector,
focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in
more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector
economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working
practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised#p#分頁標題#e#
approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs,
whilst producing a standard branded image to the world.
. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced
earlier in the assignment.
. When stating or summarising generally undisputed facts circulating freely in
the public domain and when there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement
with your statements or summaries of these.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 10
Plagiarism is about copying or acquiring the work of others
and, directly or indirectly, claiming it to be your own
independent and original work.
There are, however, no internationally agreed academic norms
or conventions on what constitutes plagiarism, and this can
cause difficulties for some international students who may
have encountered different practices in their home countries.
In Britain, there is a particularly strong emphasis given to respecting
the authorship of ideas and honouring the hard work that goes
into researching, preparing and writing academic texts.
An academic monograph or textbook, for example, can take an author several
years to research and write. Consequently it is widely felt in Britain that to copy
from a book without acknowledging the source is a violation against the authors
ownership of ideas and therefore morally wrong. For this reason plagiarism is
treated seriously and blatantly plagiarised work is usually disqualified.
Each university develops its own interpretation of plagiarism, but in general there
are four main forms of plagiarism:
.. Copying or acquiring another persons work, including the work of another
student (with or without their consent), and claiming or pretending it to be
your own;
.. Presenting arguments that use a blend of your own and the directly copied
words of the original author, with or without acknowledging the source;
.. Paraphrasing another persons work, but not giving due acknowledgement
to the original writer or organisation publishing the writing, including work
on Internet sites;
.. Colluding with other students and submitting identical or near identical
work.
However, it is also important that students are aware of their universitys own
interpretation of plagiarism, as each institution may place emphasis on a
particular feature of plagiarism.
(Scarfe 1982)
PLAGIARISM
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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For example, Bradford Universitys policy on academic integrity states:
A dissertation, thesis, essay, project or any other work which is not
undertaken in an examination room under supervision but which is submitted
by a student for formal assessment must be written by the student and#p#分頁標題#e#
in the students own words, except for quotations from published
and unpublished sources which shall be clearly indicated and
acknowledged as such
If you copy work for assessment, it defeats the whole purpose of the
exercise. If we mark work you have copied, it is not your progress that we
are evaluating, but that of somebody else. And if it is someone elses work,
our comments will not help you improve and fulfil your own potential.
Honestly producing work which is your own best effort, and having it subject
to the scrutiny of others is the most important aspect of academic integrity, a
duty which the university demands of all of its members, staff and students
alike.
Copying assessments breaches academic integrity in a fundamental way and
constitutes a grave breach of regulations and as such the University would
take necessary disciplinary action. Copying is simply a form of cheating -
pretending something is yours when it is not. At its most blatant, it is
generally known as plagiarism, the most serious act of deception anyone in
academic life can be accused of. But even if there is no deliberate intention
to deceive, copying is unacceptable academic practice.
(University of Bradford 2003)
You will see from the first paragraph of this statement that the University is
particularly concerned that students should use their own words as far as is
possible to summarise or paraphrase what they have read.
Of course, there will inevitably be some overlap between the writers words and
your own . particularly when describing places, dates, specific features and the
names of organisations.
However, you should make a determined effort to use your own words to sum up
what you have read. The act of doing this encourages a deeper level of
understanding as, in the process, you are forced to think hard about what is
actually said and meant by the authors.
Lecturers marking course work can recognise plagiarism easily. This applies
particularly when passages are copied straight from books, or cut and pasted from
the Internet, with no acknowledgement of their source. Lecturers will usually
recognise the work of established writers in the subject area concerned and there
will be stylistic differences in writing between the original author and a students
work that an experienced lecturer will detect. The School of Management is now
systematically using electronic scanning systems to highlight plagiarism in
students writing.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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How to Avoid Plagiarism
Applying, analysing, criticising or quoting other peoples work is perfectly
reasonable and acceptable providing you always:
.. attempt to summarize or restate in your own words another persons work,#p#分頁標題#e#
theories or ideas and give acknowledgement to that person. This is usually
done by citing your sources and presenting a list of references;
or
.. by always using quotation marks (or indenting lengthy quotations in your
text) to distinguish between the actual words of the writer and your own
words. Once again, you would cite all sources and present full details of these
in your list of references.
Summarising in Your Own Words
Here is an example of how this can be done.
The extract below is a paragraph taken from a journal article. This is followed by
two student summaries of the extract. As mentioned earlier, it is impossible not
to use some of the words used in the original article, particularly when referring
to the subjects of the discussion. But the aim should be to try and put the idea or
argument into your own words as best you can.
Original Extract
(From Yang, D. and Clarke, P. (2004) review of the current intellectual property
system in China, International Journal Technology Transfer and
Commercialisation, vol. 3, No. 1, pp.12-37; reprinted with permission.
For thousands of years, outsiders have regarded China as a xenophobic
country. However, the stereotypes have been changing since China opened
up its economy in 1979. Now, the encouragement of foreign direct
investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) lies at the
heart of economic relations between foreign countries and China. The
international flows of capital, information and technology facilitate the
economic growth of China and the influence of multinational enterprises
(MNEs). The boom in FDI and ITT has brought to the fore the issue of
intellectual property rights (IPRs) as a major topic in the economic
development of China. Although a historical review shows that the
germination of the concept of IPRs in China goes back more than 100 years,
in reality no effective system of intellectual property protection (IPP) existed
until very recent times.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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Two Summaries
In these extracts, the students try to present the information taken from the
extract in their own words, although some repetition of primary and key words is
inevitable. They also cite the original source (Yang and Clarke 2004).
Summary A
This essay is about intellectual property (IP) in general and about the
situation in China today, and about Chinas relationship with the West in
relation to this issue. For centuries China has been regarded by the outside
world as a rather closed and insular country. However, Yang and Clarke
(2004) argue that now things are changing, and particularly so since 1979,
when China decided to open up its economy. Since then, foreign direct#p#分頁標題#e#
investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) are important
connecting links between China and the rest of the world. Now the flows of
capital, information, technology and the influence of multinational
enterprises MNEs have stimulated the Chinese economy. But these
developments have also caused attention to focus on the issue of
intellectual property rights (IPR). Although the concept of IPR goes back
more than a hundred years, there has been no effective system of
intellectual property protection (IPP) until recently.
Summary B
China has been regarded, up to now, by the outside world, as a rather
closed and xenophobic country. However things are changing. Since 1979,
China has loosened, opened and stimulated its economy by foreign direct
investment (FDI), international technology transfer (ITT) - and from the
influence of multinational enterprises (MNEs). However, these developments
have also focused attention on the issue of intellectual property rights (IPR)
and until recently in China there has been no effective system of intellectual
property protection (IPP) (Yang and Clarke 2004).
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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In Britain, there are four main styles of referencing in use within higher education,
shown below in descending order of use.
1. Author/Date (Harvard and APA Styles)
The author/date (Harvard) approach to referencing tends to be the style that is
adopted by the majority of university departments. This is the style adopted by
the School of Management, University of Bradford, for all its courses, except
Law - which uses a combination of Harvard and a Running-note style - see below.
The Harvard Style involves giving a partial reference (a citation) in the body of
your assignment, often, but not always, enclosed within brackets e.g. (Levin
2004), and then giving full information of the source at the end of the
assignment in a references or bibliography list. Sources are always listed
alphabetically by authors last name, or name of organisation.
The American Psychological Association (APA) have developed a referencing style
similar to Harvard and this is adopted by many psychology and related disciplines
in the UK. There are minor differences between Harvard and APA, but it is
important that students asked to adopt APA style are aware of these (go to
http://www.apastyle.org/ for more information).
2. Running-Note Style
This involves inserting a raised number or superscript in the assignment, for
example, 1 for the first source, 2 for the second source, and so on. One source
may have many different numbers attached to it, depending on how often it is
referred to in the assignment. These numbers connect with citations at the#p#分頁標題#e#
bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end as endnotes, which is headed Notes
and References. The full references are shown against the numbers in the
numerical order they appeared.
3. Vancouver-Numeric Style
This also involves a numbering system, but numbers appear in brackets, e.g. (1)
in the main body of the assignment. However, unlike the numbered-note style,
the same number can be used on any number of occasions when referring to the
same source. The sources are then listed in full at the end, under References,
but listed in the numerical order they appeared, rather than in alphabetical order.
4. Author/Page (or MLA) Style
This is similar to Harvard Style. However, it uses page numbers instead of the
year in the citation, so refers to the author and specific page where the
information referred to in the source can be found. Only a few departments
within universities recommend this particular style, as the author/date (Harvard
Style) can include page numbers in the citations if required.
TYPES OF REFERENCING
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All styles of referencing are underpinned by five principles:
1. the principle of Intellectual Property: Western concepts of plagiarism are
based on an economic model of capitalism and the notion that someone can
own an idea if the idea has been presented in a fixed way, e.g. published or
presented in the public domain;
2. the principle of Access: to help readers quickly locate original documents
referred to in a text;
3. the principle of Economy: the references should include as much information
as necessary to help readers locate them. But they should also be presented
in such a way as to reduce the need for lengthy explanations in the text and
speed up the process of reading;
4. the principle of Standardization: referencing should be presented in a way
that allows everyone to understand the meaning;
5. the principle of Transparency: referencing should include easily understood
abbreviations that are recognizable to many people, for example, the use of
ed. for editor.
(Walker and Taylor 1998)
PRINCIPLES OF REFERENCING
Golden Rule of Referencing
The Golden Rule of referencing is to give the reader enough information to
help them easily and quickly find the source you cited.
If they wanted to look at your source and check it out for themselves,
could they find it easily with the source information you have given?
The first principle, above, establishes a rationale for all referencing styles
and 2 . 5 below establish a framework for referencing practice within these
styles.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 16#p#分頁標題#e#
The basic idea of the Harvard Style is to:
1. use citations (a partial reference) in the text
2. list all references in full at the end of an assignment
1. Use Citations in the Text
In the text of your assignment you give a partial reference (called a citation).
This is the last name of the author, followed by the year of publication. If you
dont have the authors name, you use the name of an organisation, newspaper,
journal, or whatever the main source is.
Citing the source as you write involves giving a partial or shortened
reference (last name of author(s) and year of publication) in the main body of
your written assignment and then giving full details of the source in full at the end
of the assignment in a References or Bibliography section. You can abbreviate
lengthy organisational names; see example below (YHES 1998).
Example: Citations
Although Handy (1994) has argued that education is the key to economic success
for individuals, organisations and nations, a majority of adults in the UK have yet to
be convinced or persuaded of this argument. In 1999 only forty per cent of adults
had participated in any sort of formal learning in the previous three years. Of these,
a significant majority was from social class groups A, B and C. Only a quarter of
adults from semi-skilled or unskilled work backgrounds had involved themselves in
formal education (Tuckett 1999). The consequences for people without
qualifications who lose their jobs are often serious. A study of long-term
unemployed people in Yorkshire found that sixty-one per cent had no educational
qualifications, and a significant number of these had special learning needs
(YHES 1998). There would appear to be a link too, between lack of qualifications,
poor health and a disengagement from participation in political or civic life, and
could aggravate the situation of unemployment for the people concerned (Hagen
2002).
THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA
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Citations in the Text
The examples shown in Section 3 of this booklet are enclosed in brackets, e.g.
(Munger and Campbell 2002). However, citations in the text can be introduced in
a variety of ways.
For example:
There would appear to have emerged by the end of the twentieth
century two broad approaches to the management of people within
organisations (Handy 1996).
This introduces a point of view and the student points to Handy as a
major proponent of this perspective.
But this is not the only way of citing the author. The student could have
also cited Handy, as follows:
Handy (1996) argues that by the end of the twentieth century two
broad approaches to the management of people within organisations#p#分頁標題#e#
had emerged.
or, (if wanting to include Handy as an exemplar of this proposition):
Some commentators, for example, Handy (1996), have argued that
by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the
management of people within organisations had emerged.
or
It can be argued, (for example, see Handy 1996), that two
approaches to the management of people within organisations had
emerged by the end of the twentieth century.
or
Charles Handy, amongst others, has argued that by the end of the
twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of
people within organisations could be observed (Handy 1996).
There is no one right way of citing authors. It depends on your writing
style at any particular point in the assignment. The important point is to
give credit to authors who have influenced your ideas and arguments.
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Effective Learning Service 18
List References in Full at the End of an Assignment
The way the full reference details are presented in this booklet is based on advice
from the following sources: British Standards Institution (BSI) guidelines:
Recommendations for citing and referencing published material, BS 5605 and
BSI guidelines 6371 Recommendations for citation of unpublished documents;
and the guidelines suggested by Xia and Crane in their book Electronic Styles: a
handbook for citing electronic information (1996).
In the References or Bibliography section at the end of an assignment the basic
format for listing references in the Harvard Style is as follows:
1. Start with the last name(s), followed by initials of the author(s), contributor,
editor, producer or speaker. If you dont have the name of an author, start
with the name of the originator. This can be an organisation name, e.g. BBC,
or name of a website, e.g. Bized.
2. This is followed by the year of publication; put this in brackets. This should
be easy to find on printed documents. However, in some older books it may
be missing. In this event, put (no date), or (n/d). With Internet sources, look
for a year the item was placed on the site, or in the absence of this, when the
site was last updated (the year in question), or if unsuccessful with either of
these two, the year you looked at the information.
3. This is followed by the title of the source. The main source is usually
emphasised in some way, e.g. underlined or italics. The main source would
be, for example, the title of a book, name of the magazine, journal or
newspaper, broadcast production source, video or CD-Rom etc. Whichever
mode of emphasis you choose- underlining or italics - keep it consistent
throughout. The pattern in this booklet is to emphasise main sources by the
use of italics.#p#分頁標題#e#
4. If your source is a chapter from an edited book, you then give the name or
names of the editors of the book, followed by the title of the edited book
(see example on page 27).
5. In most printed items you would give details of the publisher. You first give
the name of the town or city where the source was published, followed by the
name of the publisher.
6. In the case of a journal article, you finish with the reference details of
volume, edition/issue number (if shown) of the journal and the page numbers
of where the article can be found.
(There may be variations on this general sequence for some sources; see
examples in this booklet).
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Effective Learning Service 19
At the end of the assignment the references are given in alphabetical order, by
last name of the author(s), in full. The references for the citation example shown
on page 16 would be listed, as follows:
References
Hagen, J. (2002). Basic Skills for Adults. Birmingham: The Guidance Council.
Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat. London: Hutchinson.
Tuckett, A. (1999) Whos Learning What? The Guardian 18/5/1999, p. 13.
YHES: Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service (1998). Survey of Clients Aged
25+ Unemployed for Two Years or More. London: Department for Education and
Employment.
Referencing electronic sources follows the same basic format as described on
page 18, although the URL is given instead of publisher . see section 3.12 of
this booklet for referencing electronic sources). The specific date you looked
at the information is also included, e.g. (accessed 05/12/2005).
If you use an abbreviation in the citation, you would start with this
abbreviation in the reference, then immediately explain it: YHES:
Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 20
Single Topic Books
Many single subject books have a main or dominant message, perspective or
argument that forms the core or essence of the book.
Authors build their arguments around these cores by presenting evidence and
examples to back up their perspectives or by rebutting counter-arguments. If you
wish to offer evidence in your assignment that summarise these essential core
perspectives, then a page number is not necessary.
However, if you use and include a quotation from the book, you will need to
include a page number in the citation:
Ron Todd of the Transport and General Workers Union commented, weve
got three million on the dole and another 23 million scared to death (quoted
by Bratton 1992 p.70).
You can also include a page number in the citation, if you are referring to some
specific detail that is secondary or incidental to the books core point or#p#分頁標題#e#
perspective and which would be hard to find without a page number. These might
include, for example:
.. Statistics
.. Illustrative examples
.. Comments made by research subjects
.. Author comments not directly related to the main topic
You would also give a page number if you are using the book as a secondary
source . see next page.
Other Books and Sources
The same comments for books on a single topic apply for other sources. If the
reader will struggle to find precisely what you looked at without the benefit of
page numbers in the citation, then include them.
SECTION 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT
REFERENCING
Should I include page numbers from books
or other sources in the citations?
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 21
Secondary Referencing:
This is called secondary referencing. Typically, you will be reading a chapter in
a book and the author will mention an interesting piece of research done by
someone else, or provide a useful fact for your assignment, then give a citation,
naming another writer or writers.
You have two choices in this situation. You can find and read the source
mentioned yourself and check out the accuracy of the summary given by the
author you read . this is the recommended option - and then you can refer
directly to this author, as you have read the source yourself.
However, if you find it difficult to find or gain access to the primary source, and
where you are confident the secondary source author is reliable and accurate in
the way he or she has paraphrased or quoted the original author and when you
do not need to go into any great depth of analysis on what that primary author
has written, you can use these secondary sources.
For example, in the book Licensed to Work by Barrie Sherman and Phil Judkins
(1995), there is a reference to another writer, Ivan Illich, who refers to shadow
work: tasks in society that were once the responsibility of extended families and
close communities.
If Sherman and Judkins book was used as a secondary source, your citation
must make this clear. So you could write:
Ivan Illich (1981), as summarised by Sherman and Judkins (1995 p.121)
has suggested that shadow work..
or
Illich (1981) has suggested that shadow work: tasks in society were once
the responsibility of extended families and close communities (in Sherman
and Judkins, 1995 p.121).
or
Sherman and Judkins in their book (1995 p.121) refer to the work of Ivan
Illich (1981), who coined the term shadow work to suggest that .
The full reference must give details of the source you looked at, e.g.
Sherman, B. and Judkins, P. (1995). Licensed to Work. London: Cassell.#p#分頁標題#e#
The author of the book I read mentions
another author. I want to refer to this other
author. How do I reference this?
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 22
If anyone wanted to read Ivan Illichs book, they could then look at Licensed to
Work and find the full reference details there. It is not strictly necessary to give
the year of Illichs book. However, it can be useful to the reader to give this
detail, as there may be more than one Illich book listed in the primary source.
You use letters a, b, c and onward in your citations to differentiate between the
different sources; for example:
The term communication apprehension was coined by James
McCroskey (1976a) and is defined as.
Later in the assignment you might want to refer to same author, different source,
same year again, e.g.
Studies suggest that high CA can impact on a persons behaviour,
relationships, the perceptions of others, occupational choice and
employment opportunities and education (McCroskey 1976b; McCroskey
and Richmond 1979
In the references/bibliography, you would then link the two different sources to
the citation:
McCroskey, J. C. (1976a). The Effects of Communication Apprehension on
Nonverbal Behavior. Communication Quarterly, 24, 39-44.
McCroskey, J. C. (1976b). The Problems of Communication Apprehension
in the Classroom. Speech Communication Journal, 4, 1-12, [online]
How do I cite and reference books or
other sources from an author that has
published more than once in the same
year?
Same Author . Different Books . But Similar Points Made in Each One
You might on occasions want to refer to two or more books that an author has
written in a single citation . as the same argument may have been presented by
the author on more than one occasion. You can cite the author with the earlier
works listed first, e.g. (Handy 1976; 1984; 1994).
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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You should give details of the source you looked at, which will include the title and
author, in the language concerned.
However, it may be appropriate to add an English translation (in brackets)
immediately after, particularly if the book was originally published in non-
European characters, e.g. Chinese, Arabic.
The British Standard recommendation is for no punctuation within the brackets
containing a citation, e.g. (Handy 1994), although if a number of authors are
cited, you would need punctuation to separate out the names, e.g. (Mc Croskey,
Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977)
The BSI recommendations also suggest sentence stops after each distinct part of
the reference, e.g.
Handy, C. (1994).#p#分頁標題#e#
The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.
London: Hutchinson.
Example:
Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future. London:
Hutchinson.
I read a book in my own (non-English)
language. Do I give you an English translation
of the title?
What punctuation and capitalisation style
should I use in referencing?
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 24
Although British Standards does not show the year in brackets, it has become an
accepted style in referencing to enclose the year of publication within round
brackets: Handy, C. (1994).
Titles
The spelling of the original title should be retained, e.g. Americanisation of words
in titles should be retained.
Capitalisation
Follow the capitalisation shown in the original document.
For example, many book titles in social science, humanities and business
disciplines capitalize the first and last words and all words except articles (e.g.
the; an); prepositions (e.g. on; to; up; in; between - and other words
indicating spatial or temporal positions); and co-ordinate conjunctions (e.g.
and; but; or; for; so; yet)
Examples:
Turabian, K.L. (1973). A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
But you may find that titles in science disciplines and in most newspaper or
magazine articles start with a capital and use lower case for subsequent title
words, e.g.
Saigol, S. (2005) Gift shoppers set to spend 亽150m daily online. Financial Times,
12/12/2005, p.4.
The best advice, therefore, is to copy the title as it is shown in its original form.
Older books may not show a date of publication. In that event, use the
abbreviation n.d. (no date) in your citation and in the reference. You may find
other sources, e.g. videos, without apparent production dates, and the
abbreviation can be used with other undated sources.
The source has no date. How can I
reference this?
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 25
A number of authors can be cited in support of particularly key or important
points that you want to make or to support contentious statements or arguments
presented by others.
See the example shown on page 7 of this booklet (example 4).
Yes. If you include quotations in your assignment you take ownership of them.
You have decided to include quotations for emphasis or to make a particular
point, so you must include them in your word count.
Citations in the text e.g. (Handy 1994) are also included in the word count.
Are quotations and all the citations in#p#分頁標題#e#
the text counted in the word count"?
I have noticed that some writers cite more
than one author occasionally in support of
a particular argument or point of view.
When should I do this?
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 26
3.1 REFERENCING PRINTED BOOKS
SINGLE TOPIC (MONOGRAPH) BOOKS
The last name(s) of the author(s) is listed first, followed by the initial letters of
first names; followed by the year of publication in brackets; followed by the book
title (in italics or underlined . but be consistent whichever you decide); then list
the location (town or city) of the publisher, and finally the name of the publisher.
Examples:
Citation: (Handy 1994)
Reference:
Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.
London: Hutchinson.
Citation: Saunders et al (2003)
Reference:
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., (2003). Research
Methods for Business Students, 3rd edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall.
If a document has one or two authors (or originators) of equal
status, both their names should be given in the citation. If there are
more than two, the name of the first should always be given, but
the names of the others may be omitted and replaced by the term
et al (meaning, and others) e.g. (Burchell et al 1999).
Some study skills textbooks suggest that you use the term et al
when there are more than three authors. However, as et al means
and others, the British Standards Institution (BS5605) recommend
it should be used when there are more than two authors (BSI
1990).
et al?
SECTION 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCING
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 27
REFERENCING A CHAPTER FROM AN EDITED BOOK
Some books are not written by a single author, but contain
articles or chapters written by different authors. These are
edited collections, sometimes called readers and have one or
more editors.
If you make reference to an author in an edited collection, you need to give the
last name, initials, date of publication, title of chapter (inverted commas),
name(s) of editor(s), title of book (in italics or underlined), then location of and
name of publisher, and page numbers.
Examples:
Citation: (North et al 1983)
Reference:
North, D., Leigh, R., and Gough, J. (1983) Monitoring
Industrial Change at the Local Level: Some Comments on
Methods and Data Sources, in M. Healey (ed.) Urban and
Regional Industrial Research: The Changing UK Data Base,
Norwich: Geo Books, pp.111-29.
Citation: (Moorhouse 1984)
Reference: Moorhouse, H.F. (1984) American
Automobiles and Workers Dreams, in K. Thompson (ed.)#p#分頁標題#e#
Work, Employment and Unemployment, Milton Keynes:
Open University Press, pp.80-89.
Heres et
al again!
(see page
26).
The initials of the author of the chapter
follow after the authors last name.
However, the initials of the editor(s) come
before the last name(s) (as recommended
in British Standards BS5605, 1990).
As you are
referring to a
specific
chapter in a
book, give the
page numbers
of the chapter
in the
reference.
To see if you
need to
mention the
page numbers
in the
citation, see
comments on
page 20.
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Effective Learning Service 28
REFERENCING FROM ENCYCLOPAEDIAS and OTHER PRINTED
REFERENCE BOOKS
Avoid an over-reliance on encyclopaedias for information. As a first
choice, use try and information from monograph, edited books or
peer-reviewed academic journals.
Encyclopaedias: It is unlikely that the name of an individual writer
or contributor will be shown, but if one is shown, start with this: family
name first, then the writers initials. However, if no writer is shown,
start with the title of the encyclopaedia, then give brief details of the
entry referred to in the assignment, then add volume, the place of publication and
name of publisher and then the page numbers.
In dictionaries or other reference books, if the name of the editor(s) or
compiler(s) is shown, start with this, then give details of the book in the usual
way. If no editor is shown, start with the title of the reference book.
Abbreviations can be used in citations to shorten long titles (see examples 3 and 4
below) although the full title must be given in the reference.
Titles of the books are in italics or underlined.
1. Citation: (New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1975)
Reference: New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1975) Goshen,
volume 4. Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, p.642.
2. Citation: (Leibster and Horner 1989)
Reference: Leibster, L., Horner, C. (1989) Definition: Elasticity
of Supply, The Hamlyn Dictionary of Business Terms: an A-Z
Guide to the World of Commerce and Economics. London:
Hamlyn Publishing Group, p.84.
3. Citation: (ALC 2000)
Reference: ALC: Asias 7,500 Largest Companies (2000),
Quoted Companies. London: ELC International, p.90.
4. Citation: (DMCPSF 2004)
Reference: DMCPSF: Directory of Management Consultants and
Professional Service Firms in the UK (2004), 15th edition, Centre
for Management Creativity. Peterborough: Kennedy Information
Inc, p.220.
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3.2 REFERENCING JOURNAL ARTICLES, MAGAZINES and#p#分頁標題#e#
NEWSPAPERS
ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLES
Where to find the information you need on a printed academic journal.
Start with the last name of the author of the article, initials of author, year of
publication (in brackets), title of article (in inverted commas), name of the journal
or magazine (in italics or underlined), volume number and part number (if
applicable) and page numbers.
References to journal articles do not include the name of the publisher or place of
publication, unless there is more than one journal with the same title, e.g.
International Affairs (Moscow) and International Affairs (London).
Example:
Citation: (Bosworth and Yang 2000).
Reference:
Bosworth, D. and Yang, D. (2000). Intellectual Property Law, Technology Flow
and Licensing Opportunities in China. International Business Review, vol. 9,
no. 4, pp.453-477.
(The abbreviations, vol., no. and pp can be omitted, but for clarity and to
avoid confusing the reader with a mass of consecutive numbers, it is suggested
they are included).
Authors names
(In the reference,
the last name(s) of
authors are given
first, then their
initials, see below)
Year of publication
Article Title
Journal title
Volume & part: the
number of years
the journal has
been published
and number of
parts so far.
Pages of article
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MAGAZINES
The same sequence of referencing academic journals applies to magazines with a
general readership.
.. If there is an author, start with his or her last name, followed by their initials
.. Year of publication (in brackets)
.. If there is no author name, start with the originators name (as
recommended by British Standards); this would be the name of the
magazine (in italics)
.. The title of the article (you can include this in inverted commas)
.. If you started with the authors name, give the title of the magazine at this
point (in italics, or underlined)
.. Then full details of the specific date the magazine was published
.. Page numbers
Examples (with and without authors from the same magazine):
Citation: (Rigby 2005)
Reference:
Rigby, R. (2005). Crossover Consultants. Management Today,
November 2005, pp.30-35.
Citation: (Management Today 2005)
Reference:
Management Today (2005) Business Manners, Working
From Home, November 2005, p.12.
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NEWSPAPERS
The order of referencing is:
.. Name of writer, if shown
.. (if name of writer not given, start with the name of the Newspaper (in italics)#p#分頁標題#e#
.. Year of publication
.. Title of article (you can include this in inverted commas)
.. Name of newspaper (in italics or underlined), if not shown as the first item
.. Day of publication
.. Details of any special identifying feature, e.g. review sections, supplements
.. Page number
.. Short news items without authors name in newspapers can be referenced by
giving full details in the citation only. If it is a local paper, it is helpful to
include the city of origin, e.g. (Bradford Telegraph and Argus 21/06/2004,
p.4).
.. If the article appeared originally in printed form, but is being presented to
you on the Internet, via Metalib/Proquest, or on a CD-Rom, you can
reference this as if it was a printed source in front of you providing you
are sure that the article is unabridged or unamended (it will usually say if
it has been altered or amended).
Examples:
1. Citation: (Saigol 2005)
Reference:
Saigol, L. (2005). Gift shoppers set to spend 亽150m daily online.
Financial Times, 12/12/2005, p.4.
2. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)
Reference:
Financial Times (2005). Duke does U-turn over spin-off sale, 12/12/2005,
p.14.
3. Citation: (Skypala 2005)
Reference:
Skypala, P. (2005). Shooting the rapids of pension liabilities, Financial
Times: FTfm (Fund Management), 12/12/2005, p.3.
4. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)
Reference:
Financial Times (2005) Helping fashion to embrace IT. FT Companies &
Markets supplement, 12/12/2005, p.24.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 32
3.3 TV/RADIO/VIDEO/AUDIO CASSETTE/CD ROM
SOURCES
Start with the name of any author, e.g. for a CD-ROM or audio
cassette, if applicable. If not applicable, start with a production
source (see examples 1 and 5) then give information on the year of
production, and any specific transmission dates. The information
medium, e.g. CD-ROM, video cassette, radio, television, should
always be specified. Titles of any video, CD-Rom or audio cassette should be in
italics or underlined. In the case of radio and television programmes, the
production source, e.g. BBC, should be shown in italics or underlined.
If someone has been interviewed (see television programme example below), and
the interview forms the basis for the citation and reference, the reference
should start with the name of the person interviewed.
The important thing is that you give the reader full information on the medium,
programme or production in question, particularly its title, date of broadcast or
production, and the production source.
Examples:
1. Radio Programme
Citation: (BBC Radio 4 2003)
Reference: BBC Radio 4 (2003). Analysis, broadcast 12/5/2003.#p#分頁標題#e#
2. Television Programme
Citation: (Porrit, J. 1991)
Reference: Porrit, J. (1991). Interview by Jonathan Dimbleby, Panorama,
BBC 1 Television, broadcast 18/03/1991.
3. Audio CD
Citation: (Roberts 2000)
Reference: Roberts, R. (2000). Passive Music for Accelerated Learning
(audio-CD). Carmathen: Crown House Publishing.
4. CD-ROM
Citation: (Ziegler 1992)
Reference: Zeigler, H. (1992) The Software Toolworks Multimedia
Encyclopedia (version 1.5), Software Toolworks (CD-ROM). Boston: Grolier.
5. Video Tape
Citation: (TV Choice Productions nd)
Reference: TV Choice Productions (nd). The Presentation: a Guide to
Effective Speaking (video tape). Bromley: TV Choice Productions.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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3.4 REFERENCING GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
Start with the name of the writer or organisation sponsoring
the publication (if shown) or, if not shown, title of article (in
inverted commas), the title of publication (in italics or
underlined), followed by date of publication, place of publication,
name of official publisher, finally the volume or edition date number,
table or page number.
Examples:
Government sponsored reports often have long titles but become commonly
known by the name of the Chairman of the committee responsible. You should
always give the full official title of the report in a reference, but you can give the
popular title too, if you wish. You can also use an abbreviation in the citation, but
you must give the full title in the reference; see example below:
Parliamentary Reports require a little more detail, but the basic principle is the
same; see example below.
Citation: (Office for National Statistics 2000)
Reference:
Office for National Statistics (2000). Standard Occupational Classification
Volume 2: The Coding Index. London: The Stationery Office.
Citation: (Central Statistical Office 1990)
Reference:
Central Statistical Office (1990). Social Trends, 20. London: HMSO.
Citation: (UNWCED 1987)
Reference:
UNWCED: United Nations World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987). Our Common Future (Brundtland Report).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Citation: (House of Lords 1996)
Reference:
House of Lords (1996). Information Society: Agenda for Action in the
UK: Fifth Report of the Select Committee on Science and Technology,
session 1995-96. HMSO, 1996 (HL 1995-96 51).
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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3.5 PRINTED REPORTS (including Company Annual Reports)
Annual Reports
Company annual reports often involve multiple authors and rarely show the name
or names of the compilers or editors. If they do, however, start with these. But if#p#分頁標題#e#
not, start with the company name, then give the year, then full title (in italics or
underlined), section and chapter (if applicable) then page number.
Other
Other Reports
. Start with name of author (if shown): family name, then initials
. If no name of author, start with name of report
. Year of publication
. Full title of report, including sub-section or sub-title information (in italics or
underlined) and edition number
. Volume, sections, page number (if applicable)
. Place of publication
. Name of publisher
Citation: (Cable & Wireless 2002)
Reference:
Cable & Wireless (2003). Annual Report and Accounts 2003:
report of the independent auditors, p.35.
Citation: (Business Ratio Reports 2004)
Reference:
Business Ratio Reports (2004). Security Industry, edn. 26, section 4:
Performance League Tables: sales: 4-2. Hampton: Keynote.
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Effective Learning Service 35
3.6 REFERENCING COURSE MANUALS/LECTURE NOTES
You can also refer to course manuals and lecture notes given to
you by teaching staff. These notes may be a primary source,
e.g. a summary or explanation written by a lecturer, or a
secondary source, where a lecturer is quoting what someone
else has said, or referring directly to a third person.
Examples of citing primary and secondary sources using teaching
notes supplied to you (imagine that the following extracts are taken
from an essay on marketing):
1. Primary
When choosing from the mix of promotional activities available to market a
product, the market objectives should be the main driving force. Low (2004)
has suggested four main questions: who is your target group? What do you
want them to do? When do you want them to act? And how much are you
prepared to spend to communicate with them?
2. Secondary
Marketing Communications has been defined as a process through which
an organisation enters into a dialogue with its various audiences. The
objective is to influence in a positive way a particular target audience in its
awareness, understanding and actions towards that organisation and its
products or services (Fill 2002, as cited in Low, 2004, p.2).
In both cases, the References section would give full details of Low, which is the
source for both these citations, i.e.
Low, C. (2004). Marketing Communications, from MA Course
Manual, 2004/5, p.2, University of Bradford, School of Management.
Regarding the second example (secondary source), you might want to go to the
main source, i.e. Fill, 2002, to look at the original to enable you to expand on the
definition presented or be critical of it. If you did do this you could then cite Fill
directly as a primary source.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies#p#分頁標題#e#
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3.7 REFERENCING WORD-OF-MOUTH (interviews,
telephone conversations and lectures)
Interviews
Face to face interviews you conduct for any project can be referenced, provided
you make available any interview notes, transcripts, completed interview
questionnaires or recordings made. These can be added, if required, as appendix
items (check with your tutor).
Start your full reference with the family name of the interviewee, initials, year of
interview, then state the purpose of the interview (italics or underlined), place of
interview, name of interviewer (this could be your own name), then date of
interview.
Telephone Discussions (including interviews)
A similar principle (about keeping notes or making a recording) and reference
sequence applies to telephone conversations:
. Name of person spoken to (family name, then initials)
. Year
. Medium (telephone conversation/interview)
. Subject of discussion (italics or underlined)
. Your name (or name of person speaking to subject)
. Date of conversation
Ensure you keep a written record of verbal discussions, otherwise your tutor has
no way of cross-checking points you make in assignments.
Citation: (Brown 2005)
Reference: Brown, J. (2005). Personal Interview (marketing survey for MA
project). GKN, Leeds, with Jim Clarke, 20/03/05.
Citation: (Edwards 2005)
Reference:
Edwards, R. (2005). Telephone interview re. SMEs and graduate
employment with Colin Neville, 13/12/2005.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
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Lectures
. Start with name of lecturer: family name, then initials
. Year
. Medium (lecture) and details of lecture (italics or underlined)
. Module and course details, including academic year
. Place
. Exact date of lecture
Citation: (Neville 2005)
Reference:
Neville, C. (2005). Lecture on academic writing, Self-development module,
first year undergraduate course 2005/6, University of Bradford, School of
Management, 25/11/2005.
You could also reference published interviews in journals, magazines or
elsewhere. The sequence for this would be:
. Name of person interviewed (last or family name first, then initials)
. Year of interview
. Title of interview
. Explanation of interview
. Interviewers name
. Title of publication (in italics or underlined)
. Publication details, including full date and page number
Example:
Citation: (Turner 2005)
Reference:
Turner, N. (2005). Turners secret: the short-haul factor. Interview with
Nigel Turner, BMIs new CEO, by Ben Flanagan. The Observer (Business
Section), 22/05/2005, p.18.
(See also television interviews, page 32).#p#分頁標題#e#
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3.8 REFERENCING UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
The same basic format for Harvard referencing applies for referencing unpublished
sources: start with the name of the writer or speaker, year of dissertation,
conference title (in italics or underlined) of the document(s), talk, presentation
etc, name of conference or seminar (if applicable) and other information to locate
the material. In the case of archive material, this will be the name of the place
where the item is to be found.
Examples:
Unpublished MBA dissertation
Unpublished Conference Paper
Unpublished Archive Material
Citation: (Cooper 2003)
Reference: Cooper, T.E.J. (2003). Implementing Strategic Change in the
Recruitment Advertising/Employment Communication Industry. Unpublished
MBA Management Project, University of Bradford, School of Management
Library.
Citation: (Broadbent 2005)
Reference: Broadbent, M. (2005). Tackling Plagiarism: a Teaching and
Learning Perspective. Unpublished paper delivered at Conference: Tackling
Plagiarism. University of Hertfordshire, Business School, 22/03/05.
Citation: (Vickridge, 1918)
Reference: Vickridge, A. Correspondence of Alberta Vickridge 1917-1965, Box
2, letter to Vickridge from A. Christie, 12/02/1918. University of Leeds,
Brotherton Library.
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3.9 REFERENCING STANDARDS and PATENTS
Standards
In the full reference:
. Start with the issuing body, e.g. British Standards
. Year of publication (if the standard number incorporates the date of
publication, this can be omitted, as in the example below)
. Title (italics or underlined)
. The Standard number
Patents
The sequence in the full reference is:
. Name(s) of inventor(s) or patentee(s): family name(s) first, then initials
. Year of publication
. Title of patent (italics or underlined)
. Country of origin and serial number
. Date of application and date of acceptance
Citation: (British Standards 1990)
Reference:
British Standards. Presentation of theses and dissertations. BS4821:1990
Citation: (Lund-Anderson 2001)
Reference:
Lund-Anderson, B. (2001). Device for the damping of vibrators
between objects. US Patent 6296238. Appl. 24/06/1999. Acc.
02/10/2001.
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3.10 REFERENCING LEGAL DOCUMENTS
Students on law degree or related courses will learn a
referencing style that is particular to this subject, which is
usually the Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities
(OSCOLA). This is the style used by the Oxford University#p#分頁標題#e#
Commonwealth Law Journal, who contributed to its
development. However, students on other courses, who
occasionally have to cite legal cases, may also find this section helpful.
OSCOLA style of referencing
More detailed information on the OSCOLA Style of referencing can be obtained
from the website of Faculty of Law, University of Oxford. Briefly though, the
OSCOLA referencing style is different to the Harvard style of referencing in that it
uses a raised or superscript numbers in the text of an assignment, combined with
footnotes. The numbers used in the text against evidence presented is then
connected with a footnote at the base of each page. You can use the Insert .
Reference . Footnotes facility on Microsoft Word to manage this for you. You
would also need to prepare a bibliography at the end of the assignment to present
an alphabetical overview of all the sources you had featured in your footnotes.
It is also different to Harvard referencing in the way it presents the full details
references in footnotes and bibliographies.
With books, for example, the first name or initials of the author(s) is presented
before the authors last name, without a stop or comma between them. Also, the
title is always in italics, and the edition, publisher, place of publication and date
are enclosed within brackets. Page numbers can be included, if relevant, as last
items in the reference. When there are more than three authors, just state the
first, followed by and others.
OSCOLA examples:
. D French, How to Cite Legal Authorities, (London: Blackstone, London 1996)
33-35
. P Loose and others, The Company Director (9th rev edn Jordans, Bristol 2006)
(Note: the book mentioned above, How to Cite Legal Authorities, is recommended
reading regarding citations and referencing for any student studying for a law
degree).
Reference essays and chapters in edited journals, as follows:
. D Cullen, Adoption . a (Fairly) New Approach, Child and Family Law
Quarterly (Oct 2005) 17 475, 486.
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A minimum of punctuation is used, and commas should be used only to stop
words running into each other. All words in the title should be capitalised, except
prepositions (of, by, which), articles (the, an, a) and conjunctions (and,
or).
G1. Case citation
Case citation is a frequent occurrence in law course assignments. You need to
include:
. names of the parties;
. year, in square or round brackets (see below discussion for when to do this);
. volume number;
. abbreviated name of the law report series;
. first page of the reference.
Case names should be italicised in assignments, e.g.#p#分頁標題#e#
Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1990] 2 All ER 908
When referring to a case for the first time, give its full name exactly as it appears
in the report. In subsequent references a case can be referred to by a shortened
name, e.g. Murphy v Brentwood District Council, and can be referred to as the
Murphy case.
If you give the full details of the case in the text, you do not need to repeat the
information in a list of references.
Examples:
1. Campbell v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd [2004] 2 All ER 995
2. Rees v United Kingdom (1987) 9 EHRR 56
You could, however, refer to part of the citation in the text, e.g. Campbell v Mirror
Group Newspapers, and give the full reference details in footnotes.
Square or round brackets?
Square brackets are used when the date is essential for finding the report. Round
brackets are used when the date is merely of assistance in giving an idea of when
a case was featured in law reports that have cumulative volume numbers.
Abbreviations?
The abbreviations in the examples shown above refer to All England Law Reports
(All ER) and European Human Rights Reports (EHRR). A full list of abbreviations
in the names of law reports and journals can be found at the Cardiff University
Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations website at
http://www.legalabbrevs.cardiff.ac.uk/searchabbreviation/
or from OSCOLA.
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Punctuation?
Use open punctuation . no stops after parts of the abbreviation, e.g. All ER (and
not All. E.R.)
Specific page references?
When a particular passage is being quoted or referred to, the specific page
references must be included, e.g.
Jones v Tower Boot Co Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 406 at 411
Judges name?
When the judges name is being quoted or referred to in a particular passage, the
judges name should be provided as part of the citation, e.g.
That was the opinion of Mackay LC in Pepper v Hart [1993] 1 All ER 42 at 47
Judges should be referred to in terms of Justice or Lords Justice, as appropriate,
e.g. Clark J; or Smith LJ. If referring to more than one High Court judge: Smith,
Clark and Brown JJ; or Smyth and Clarke LJJ if Lords Justice.
G2. UK Acts of Parliament (Statutes)
These are Acts passed by Parliament, which eventually receive royal assent and
become law. You would normally list the source in the full reference, as follows:
. title of Act and year;
. the part: pt, and section: s, and/or
. the schedule: sch, and section: s.
Example:
Citation: (Data Protection Act 1998)
Reference: Data Protection Act 1998. pt 1, s2.
Note: the year: 1998, does not appear in brackets in the reference, as the date is#p#分頁標題#e#
part of the title.
For older statutes, the Oxford Standard suggests it can be helpful to give the
appropriate year of reign and chapter number, e.g. Crown Debts Act 1801 (14
Geo 3 c 90), meaning that the Act was given Royal Assent in the 14th, year of the
reign of George the Third, and was the 90th Act given Royal Assent in that
parliament, hence c 90).
G3. UK Bills
A bill is proposed legislation before Parliament. Bills are cited by their name, the
Parliamentary Session, the House of Parliament in which it originated and the
running order assigned to it, and any relevant sections or subsections. HC=
House of Commons; HL= House of Lords.
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Example:
Citation: (Identity Cards Bill 2004-5)
Reference: Identity Cards Bill 2004-5 HC-8, s 9(4).
G4. UK Statutory Instruments
These are orders and regulations linked to particular Acts and should be
referenced by name, date and serial number (where available).
Subsidiary words in long titles within the in-text citation may be abbreviated (see
example below), but the full title must be given in the reference.
Example:
Citation: (Telecommunications (LBP) (IC) Regulations 2000)
Reference: The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception
of Communications) Regulations 2000.
G5. EC Legislation
European Community (EC) legislation (Regulations, Directives and Decisions), and
other instruments (including Recommendations and Opinions) should be
referenced by providing the legislation type, number and title, then publication
details from the Official Journal (OJ) of the European Communities. Be warned,
these references can be lengthy! Example:
Citation: (Commission Regulation 1475/95)
Reference:
Commission Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 of 28 June 1995 on the application of
Article 85 (3) [now 81 (3)] of the Treaty to certain categories of motor vehicle
distribution and servicing agreements Official Journal L 145, 29/06/1995 pp.
0025 . 0034.
The capital letter L in the example, i.e. Official Journal L, indicates the series
stands for Legislation; the C series contains EU information and notices, and the S
series contains invitations to tender (see Oxford Standard p.18).
(With thanks to Neil Carter, Law Librarian, School of Management Library for
allowing me to use his lecture notes in part of this section)
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3.11 REFERENCING CINEMA FILMS OR THEATRE PLAYS
Cinema films and theatre plays may also be referenced .
particularly to make social points or to give dramatic
examples of a particular theory in action.
For example, the 1957 film Twelve Angry Men makes an#p#分頁標題#e#
effective point about the pressure in groups to conform to
the will of the majority. And the 1983 Tom Kempinski
play, Duet for One, vividly conveys the impact of physical
disability on the life of a professional person.
Film:
You start with the title of the film and year of production, then state the medium,
e.g. film, and then give the name of the director (or producer if director not
known); finally, give the name of the film studio and details of any video
recording currently available.
Play:
The scripts of plays are usually available in printed form so you should be able to
give details of the playwright and the publisher of the script. To reference plays,
start with the name of the playwright, then year of publication, title of play (italics
or underlined), state medium, e.g. play, then details of the Act, Scene and/or
page number, then publisher information.
Citation: (Twelve Angry Men 1957)
Reference: Twelve Angry Men (1957). Film directed by Sidney Lumet,
Hollywood: MGM Studios (available now on MGM Vintage Classics video
series).
Citation: (Kempinski 1983)
Reference: Kempinski, T. (1983). Duet for One. Play: Act 1, p.21. London:
Samuel French Inc.
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3.12 REFERENCING ELECTRONIC SOURCES
The Internet is a rich source of information for students. It is also, unfortunately,
the unregulated host to sites that have been created by their authors as arenas
for their ill-informed and biased opinions.
Reliable Internet sites can certainly be used and cited in assignments. But how
can you evaluate Internet sites?
Munger and Campbell (2002) and Rumsey (2004) suggest the following questions
asked of sites can help you evaluate the reliability of them:
Author/Purpose Content Design
.. Who is the author?
.. Why has this site
been established .
is it clear from the
introduction?
.. Is there a link to
the authors Email
address?
.. Does the author
have any academic
or professional
affiliation?
.. Who is the sponsor
of the site?
.. What is the sites
purpose?
.. Who is the
intended audience
for the site?
.. What are the
potential biases or
hidden agendas of
the site?
.. Were you
connected to this
site from a reliable
source?
.. How
comprehensive is
the site in its
coverage?
.. Is the site regularly
updated? When
was the site last
updated?
.. How are sources
referenced and
documented?
.. Are the links
provided working?
(a site that is not
being updated,
including the
hyperlinks, should#p#分頁標題#e#
not be trusted)
.. On what basis are
links selected?
.. What is the
rationale for the
provided links to
other sites?
.. Is the site easy to
navigate and use?
.. Does the resource
follow good
principles of
design, proper
grammar, spelling
and style? If it does
not, beware!
.. Does the site
include
advertising?
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The basic principles of the Harvard Style apply for all electronic sources, e.g. if
there is the name or names of authors, start with these, then show year of
original publication, if shown (or date stamp of site if any is given), then a title of
article (if shown) in italics or underlined, or title of site followed by full details of
the website, and finally the date you gained or Accessed the information from
the site.
Important:
You dont have separate lists of www sites in your References or Bibliography
sections. Internet sites are incorporated into one alphabetical list of references.
Also, you dont give the www address as your citation in the text of your
assignment! Instead, you put the name of an author, or the source organisation.
if the URL is ridiculously long , for example, stretching over three or more lines,
you can give the homepage address and then give a series of keyword search
words to take the reader to the relevant screen.
EXAMPLE A: (Online Article or Report)
You see from example A above, that in the reference the last names of the
authors are shown, followed by their initials, year report was published, title of
article, followed by the full website address and then the date the site was
Accessed: the date you visited the site.
EXAMPLE B: (Government Statistics Online)
Citation: (Introna et al 2003)
Reference:
Introna, L., Hayes, N., Blair, L., and Wood, E. (2003). Cultural
Attitudes Towards Plagiarism.
http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/apppage.cgi?USERPAGE=7508 [Accessed
13/12/2005].
Citation: (National Statistics Online 2005)
Reference:
Office for National Statistics (2005). Employment: Rate rises to 74.9% in
3 months to Sept 05.
http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=12 [Accessed
13/12/2005].
Basic Principles of Referencing Electronic Sources
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In example B, there is no author(s) name(s) shown, so you start with the main
source, e.g. Office for National Statistics (ONS), then add the year the data was
originally published by the ONS, the title of the online screen information, full#p#分頁標題#e#
details of the website address and finally the date you visited the site.
EXAMPLE C: Article from a journal or magazine
These will be in two groups: (a) articles that were originally produced in print
form and can be found online; and (b) those that are on-line only.
Article originally produced in print form:
An academic journal article has usually been subject to peer-review scrutiny. The
majority of these articles retrieved from the internet are likely to be reproduced
unabridged from their original printed forms, so the journal details are referenced
as if it was a printed source. You can then simply add Electronic version or
Online to the reference; see fictitious example C1 that follows.
However, if you have any reason to believe changes, amendments or
commentaries have been made from the original print version, you should include
the URL address and the date you accessed the information; see example C2 that
follows.
Article in an online magazine (not available in print form; online only)
Give full details of the name of the magazine, year of publication, title, URL
address, and date you accessed the information. If an authors name was shown,
then start with this. If not, start with name of magazine or journal, as shown in
the example C3 that follows:
C3: Magazine article, no named writer
Example C1
Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing
Studies. Summer, pp.266-272.
Example C2
Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing
Studies. Summer, pp.266-272. Available at http://www.JRS.org [Accessed 23
Oct. 2006]
Microsoft Windows XP (2006) 25 Best hidden programs. Issue 58, May.
Available at http://www.windowsxpmagazine.co.uk/ [Accessed 19 July 2006).
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EXAMPLE D: Newspaper article
If the name of the journalist or writer is shown, start with this. If not, start with
the name of the online newspaper site. Give the title and date of the item or
article, and the URL address to take the reader to where the article can be found.
Two examples:
Journalist named
Lister, S. (2006). Basic hygiene is failing in a third of NHS hospitals. Times Online.
22 Mar. 2006. Available at TimesOnlinehttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/
article/0,,8122-2097936,00.html [Accessed 24 July 2006]
No journalist named
Times Online (2006). On the flight path of dying Ibis. 24 July 2006. Available at
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2282913,00.html [Accessed 24 July
2006].
EXAMPLE E: (Databases for statistical and company data)#p#分頁標題#e#
You can use the library Metalib information portal service to gain access to many
useful statistical databases, e.g. Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME). The
database for statistical and company specific information should always be
named, its publisher, along with the title of report, and date information was
obtained.
However, if the database is password protected there is no point in giving the URL
address; you only give URL addresses in references if the site is publicly
accessible.
The first example that follows is an example of referencing using the FAME
database to focus on just one company.
The second example shows a citation and the reference when FAME was used to
gather and collate data on three separate companies.
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EXAMPLE F: (Quoting from the Internet)
Quoting directly from the Internet (or any other source should be done very
selectively. Wherever possible try and summarise or paraphrase what you have
read.
Quoting an author directly should always be done for a particular purpose, for
example, to convey a sense of the voice of a particular author or organisation;
example:
The reference for this quotation . taken from the Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQ) section of the authors website . would be given as
follows:
Gardner, H. (2005) Domains, FAQ, p.2, Howard Gardner
Homepages, www.howardgardner.com [Accessed 22/04/05].
EXAMPLE G: (Secondary Sources on the Internet)
You will also encounter many Internet sources that summarise or quote indirectly
the words of others. You would treat these Internet sources as secondary
sources (see pages 21-22).
However, Howard Gardner regards the term domain in a completely
different way: The domain in a society can be thought of as the kinds of
roles listed in the Yellow Pages of a phone book- anything from Accounting
to Zoology (Gardner 2005).
1. Citation: (Dixons Group PLC 2004)
Reference:
Dixons Group PLC (2004). Company Report: Profile. Available from
Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME) database, Bureau Van Dijk
Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via Metalib 13/12/05].
2. Citation: (FAME Database 2005)
Reference: FAME: Financial Analysis Made Easy (2005). Compilation
derived from: Company Annual Reports: PC World; Currys; UniEuro,
FAME database, Bureau Van Dijk Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via
Metalib 22/04/05].
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For example, on the Friends of the Earth (FOE) Internet site, the FOE quote the
Executive Director of Corpwatch and author, Joshua Karliner, as saying that#p#分頁標題#e#
51 of the 100 world's largest economies are corporations.
If you were unable to locate the primary source (i.e. Joshua Karliner), to check
the accuracy of this quotation, you could cite the Friends of the Earth site
(although this would not be as reliable as checking out the primary source.
The citation and reference would be as follows:
EXAMPLE H: (Referencing E-mails)
Significant E-mail messages can also be referenced, providing a record is kept.
The following format is recommended:
. Last name of sender, then his or her initials
. Year communication received
. Medium (Email)
. Title or subject of message
. Date communication received
Example:
In this example, as you see, the citation in the assignment would be (Brown,
2004), as the sender (Brown) has communicated information to the recipient
(Neville), who can then use this information as a source in an assignment.
However, you should obtain permission from the sender, if possible, to use the
correspondence for reference purposes, and you should keep a copy of the
correspondence to enable a tutor to read it if required; alternatively, it can be
presented as an appendix item.
Citation: (Karliner, as cited by Friends of the Earth, 2004).
Reference:
Friends of the Earth (2005). Corporates: Corporate Power.
http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/corporates/issues/corporate_power/
[Accessed 13/12/2005].
Citation: (Brown 2004)
Reference:
Brown, J. (2004) Email to C. Neville re. citing teaching notes, 12/12/2005.
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EXAMPLE I: (Discussion Lists)
Messages from discussion lists can also be used if they contribute in a significant
way to any assignment. Start with the last name of the sender of the message,
then give his/her initials, year, subject of message, title of discussion list, E-mail
address, date message posted onto site and finally, the date the message was
Accessed by you.
Example:
You will need to keep message(s) on file in case a tutor wishes to see them,
or they can be included as appendix items.
Citation: (Braham 2003)
Reference:
Braham, J. (2003). Skills Audit, LDHEN Discussion List,
[email protected], 22/07/2003 [Accessed 25/07/03].
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Before you look at some example assignments that show referencing in
action, try answering the questions in this referencing quiz.
Look at the following situations that can occur when writing assignments and
decide if a citation is needed at that point in the assignment.#p#分頁標題#e#
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams
in your assignment. These may be items directly
copied or which have been a source of collation for
you.
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or
practice associated with a particular writer.
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety
of sources about what has happened over a period
of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a
cause of dispute or controversy.
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that
you believe is important and that you summarise
in your assignment.
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has
found a measure of agreement and support
amongst commentators.
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that
you introduced and referenced earlier in the
assignment.
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and
when there is unlikely to be any significant
disagreement with your statements or summaries.
8. When using quotations in your assignment.
9. If you copy and paste items from the
Internet where no authors name is shown.
10.When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own
words) another persons idea that you feel is
particularly significant or likely to be a subject of
debate.
See page 67 for answers.
QUIZ
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EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (1)
(This is an example of referencing in action. It is a report that contains a range of
sources, including from the Internet. Note where, when and how references are
used to support evidence).
CALL CENTRES IN THE UK: IS THERE A FUTURE FOR THEM? (2.000 words)
INTRODUCTION
This report will look at the future for call centres in Britain. It will look at current
call centre work trends and conditions generally in the UK, use the Yorkshire
region of Britain as an exemplar of trends and will discuss predicted work
opportunities over the next decade.
Call centres are collective forms of teleworking, where a group of people work on
non-domestic premises controlled by a third party. These premises may be called
satellite offices, call centres, computer resources centres and may use workers
employed by the parent company or may use sub-contracted workers for
particular tasks.
THE RISE OF CALL CENTRES
The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and
technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector,
focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in
more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector
economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working
practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised#p#分頁標題#e#
approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs,
whilst producing a standard branded image to the world. The approach naturally
lent itself to large companies with a large, distributed customer bases.
Currently in Britain 800,000 people are employed in 4,000 call centres, but it is
predicted that, despite a loss of jobs to India and elsewhere, by 2005 this will
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grow to a million workers (DTI 2004). Despite this there is still a future for the UK
call centre sector.
CALL CENTRES IN YORKSHIRE
The Yorkshire region of the UK is an example of how call centres can flourish. In
South Yorkshire, there has been large investment in call centre development,
encouraged by EU regional development. Around 6,000 operators are already
employed with companies such as Ventura (3,750 staff), Selflex (1,000) and One-
2-One (300); in Doncaster, BT Cellnet employs 900 staff at its call centre. (PSU
1996).
In West Yorkshire, twenty-five call centres had established in Leeds by 2000,
employing around 15,000 people and occupying 10% of office space available in
the city. Around a third of the Leeds call centres are within traditional single
company financial services and the remainder offer a range of services to their
clients, including retail sales, mobile phones services and road breakdown
services (Yorkshire Post 24.9.98. p.3.). In Bradford, by 2004, around 7,000
people were employed in call centres, and this is expected to rise to 10,000 by
2007 (Bradford Telegraph and Argus 21.06.04. p. 4).
WORK OPPORTUNITIES and WORKING CONDITIONS IN CALL CENTRES
Types of calls are often divided into outbound and inbound. Inbound calls are calls
that are initiated by the customer to obtain information, report a malfunction or
ask for help. This is substantially different from outbound calls where the agent
initiates the call to a customer mostly with the aim to sell a product or a service
to that customer.
Call centre staff are often organized in tiers, with the first tier being largely
unskilled workers who are trained to resolve issues using a simple script. If the
first tier is unable to resolve an issue the issue is escalated to a more highly
skilled second tier. In some cases, there may be third or higher tiers of support.
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A trend originally observed in the US is also becoming apparent in Britain: of a
high and a low end to the services provided. The characteristics of employment
at both ends of this spectrum can be summarised, as shown below:
High End Call Centre Services Low End Call Centre Services
.. Usually involving detailed#p#分頁標題#e#
financial services advice,
information and sales
.. Staff recruited for their
knowledge and expertise in these
areas
.. Training of staff a high priority
.. Emphasis on retaining staff
.. Staff reasonably well-paid
.. Operators require little technical
knowledge
.. Generally perform a customer
service role, typically within travel,
retail and leisure industries
.. May involve cold selling
.. Staff not particularly well paid
Turnover of staff as high as 80%
(source: Huws 1999)
However, all is not well in call centres, particularly regarding working conditions.
A report from Income Data Services (IDS 1998) found large variations in pay and
work in UK call centres. This was emphasised in a recent report commissioned by
the Health and Safety Executive that suggested some UK call centres should be
compared to Victorian 'dark satanic mills'. The research found that employees at
the worst call centres felt powerless and tied to their desks. Many complained that
low wages, poor working conditions and repetitive tasks led to poor job
satisfaction and high levels of depression (Management Issues 2005).
It would appear that where the dominant focus in any call centre is on answering
calls as quickly as possible, the stress levels rise. The complaints by customers
about call centre services include those of the length of time in queues,
automated menu systems, premium rate lines, having to communicate with staff
confined to scripts and the lack of continuity of contact with operators between
calls. These quality related problems appear to have risen for a number of
reasons:
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 56
.. The call centre industry is unregulated and no independent body exists to
represent the views of consumers.
.. Call centres often try to match the number of available operators with the
volume of calls coming in, but often the number of calls exceeds this, which
results in long queues.
.. Some call centres judge operators on the number of calls they take, and set
unrealistic targets so customer service suffers.
.. Call centre operators are often given a script, which is meant to cover all
possible scenarios, so are unable to give an answer to an unscripted query.
.. Operators at offshore call centres do not necessarily have the knowledge of
UK culture and language to answer every customer query (BBC 2004).
However, there appears to be an increasing recognition of the need for UK call
centres to improve the quality of customer experiences. For many businesses, the
call centres become the yardstick by which they are judged. In a competitive
situation, a customer who has had a poor experience is likely to take his or her#p#分頁標題#e#
business elsewhere.
THE FUTURE FOR CALL CENTRES
At one time in the recent past, the call centre industry in Europe was dubbed a
bubble market after a study into the future of call centres by the London based
economic consultants, Business Strategies, warned that the growth of Internet
and automatic voice response technology will make call centre operators
redundant (Business Strategies 2000). Another communications company, the
OTR Group, suggested around the same time, that one in five jobs in all call
centres in Europe would disappear over the next decade (Financial Times 1999).
The increasing use of automatic voice response technology (AVR) was thought to
reduce the need for direct operator interventions, and that the growth of Internet
sales would reduce operator-customer contacts.
However, in recent years this prediction has been revised. AVR technology is
currently unpopular with many callers, who often prefer more human interaction.
In Britain, the Yorkshire and Tyneside accents are popular with callers from within
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 57
the UK and from other countries, and call centres report that customers from
other countries, particularly the USA, are noticeably inclined to lengthen their call
times to engage Northern British operators in friendly discussion. British Asian call
centre operators are particularly in demand to communicate with customers who
speak no English. The relative low cost of commercial property and lower wages,
compared to the South of England, is also cited as attractive factor with
employers, and particularly with the public sector.
As mentioned earlier, another more serious potential threat to many UK call
centre jobs comes with the increasing globalisation of work and multinational
companies have subcontracted work to English speaking countries in South East
Asia. In July 2003, the market intelligence company, Key Note, predicted that that
by 2008 the UK would lose 97,000 call centre jobs to the Indian sub continent (ELogistics
2003). British Telecom currently gets much of its data entry work done
in India and British Airways has established a call centre in Bombay to handle its
bookings (The Observer 2003).
It is certainly true that UK call centre jobs have been lost as employers look to cut
costs and relocate overseas. However, USDAW, one of the main trade unions, in
the call centre industry has drawn attention to differences in the levels of service
between UK and overseas call centres. Referring to studies conducted by a
research firm, ContactBabel of 290 UK call centre directors and managers, and of
44 Indian call centre operation, they highlighted that:
. on average, UK agents answer 25 per cent more calls each hour than their#p#分頁標題#e#
Indian counterparts, and resolve 17 per cent more of these calls first time;
. UK call centre workers tend to stay with their company for well over three
years, while the burn out rates in this 亽1 billion a year industry in India are
extremely high, with an estimated one in three workers quitting within a year.
. more than a third of callers to India have to ring back at least a second time
(UK has a first-time resolution rate of over 90 per cent);
. almost a third of Indian call centres do not measure customer satisfaction,
while very few perform any pro-active quality checking (USDAW 2004).
It does appear then, that the call centre industry in India appears now to be
encountering some of the same problems that emerged in the West and is finding
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 58
it harder to retain workers as the economy there strengthens and career options
for well-qualified workers increase. Operators working at a distance from
customers are also likely to feel remote from them: physically, socially and
culturally. There is no shared understanding of place and society that often
underpins discussion between people from similar geographical backgrounds (The
Observer 2003).
The recent DTI report suggests that the expansion of call centre services in the
UK is likely to be in the realm of more specialisation, with UK call centre operators
offering a more informed advisory and information services. UK operators are also
likely to be expected to use, at least in the short to medium tems, a wider range
of communication technology, than operators in other countries (DTI 2004).
A likely scenario for the future of call centres globally is one where call centres
use a mixture of Internet and operator services. By 2010, it is estimated that 900
million people worldwide will be using the Internet and already a quarter of UK
call centres have staff dealing with Email communications from customers.
Developments, such as Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) and Internet
provision enables call centres to diversify their products and services. CTI
enables call centres to offer support services to the online retail market. Although
only a small percentage of sales in the UK are currently conducted through the
Internet, this market is growing rapidly. Call centre staff will need to develop
more advanced computer skills in the future and are likely to communicate both
by Email and verbally with customers.
CONCLUSION
The future for call centres in Britain is certainly not as gloomy as predicted in the
late 1990s, provided that call centres respond to the need for more personal,
more responsive and bi-lingual modes of contact with customers. There is a
particularly need in Britain, to offer more specialist bi-lingual services to#p#分頁標題#e#
customers and particularly Asian language services in multi-ethnic areas.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 59
Bibliography
Asia Business Today (2006). Outsourcing: Is India to be Blamed?
http://www.asiabusinesstoday.org/briefings/ [Accessed 11/01/2006].
BBC (2004). Brassed Off Britain: Call Centres.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bob/callcentres/ [Accessed 09/08/2004].
Business Strategies (2000). Tomorrows Call Centres: a research study.
www.business-strategies.co.uk [Accessed 02/01/2001].
DTI: Department for Trade and Industry (2004) The UK Contact Centre Industry:
a study, London: Department for Trade and Industry.
E-Logistics (2003). Call centres - an inexorable flight?
http://www.elogmag.com/magazine/29/call-centres.shtml, [Accessed 20/6/04].
Financial Times. 23.8.1999, p.3.
Health and Safety Executive (2004). Psychosocial Working Conditions in Great
Briain in 2004. London: Health and Safety Executive.
Huws, U (1993). Teleworking in Britain: a Report to the Employment Department.
Research Series No 18, Oct 1993. London: Department of Employment.
Huws, U (1996). eWorking: an Overview of the Research. London: Department of
Trade and Industry.
Huws, U (1999). Virtually There: The Evolution of Call Centres. Report: Mitel
Telecom Ltd.
IDS: Income Data Services (1998). Pay and Conditions in Call Centres 1996.
www.incomesdata.co.uk/index.html [Accessed 20/06/2004].
Management Issues (2005). Call Centres are Modern Day Satanic Mills.
http://www.managementissues.
com/display_page.asp?section=researchandid=1063 [Accessed
20/07/2005].
The Observer. Bombay Calling 07/12/2003, p.19.
PSU: Policy Research Unit (1996) Shaping the Future: an economic and labour
market assessment of Yorkshire and Humberside. Leeds Metropolitan University/
Leeds Training and Enterprise Council.
USDAW (2004). Indian vs UK Call Centres: New reports Find Faults in Both.
www.publictechnology.net/modules.php?op=modloadandname=Newsandfile=artic
leandsid=442, [Accessed 20/06/2004].
You will notice the list of sources above is headed
Bibliography. This is because the student has
included items that have been directly cited plus
included other sources that have proven to be useful
as background reading material.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies#p#分頁標題#e#
Effective Learning Service 60
(This is an example of an advanced essay, written in a traditional style, of the
level expected at postgraduate level and which again demonstrates referencing in
action. Note in particular the use of secondary and multiple sources on page 60).
Title:
How can the concepts outlined in the models for managing change be
useful in life planning? Give examples to illustrate your answer.
Change is not made without inconvenience, even from worse to better (Samuel
Johnson). Johnsons observation summarises a paradox that many people feel:
the tension between remaining in a familiar state, or making a change; a change
that is likely to cause some inconvenience, or more likely, uncertainty. Therein
lies the paradox: it is tempting for many people to stay with a situation that has
the comfort of familiarity, rather than risk moving into territory for them as yet
uncharted. But this assumes a choice over the matter. People are often propelled
unwillingly and unexpectedly into situations not of their choosing.
The essay will present and discuss some models for managing change for people
in three broad categories: first, those who exercise discretionary choice over a
given life situation; second, those who are faced with choices they would prefer
not to make, but nevertheless have ultimate control of the process; and third,
those who have change thrust arbitrarily on them by fate in all its many forms.
The examples given will be related to how practitioners charged with the
responsibility of managing or supporting others facing change might support the
change-seekers or change-victims concerned. In a business context these
practitioners are likely to be members of a Human Resources team, but could also
include external trainers, management or life planning consultants.
Change is not received or perceived in a homogeneous way. Gerard Egan, for
example, draws a distinction between discretionary and non-discretionary
change (Egan 1994). In the former, the individual has a choice about change to
make and makes it willingly. The outcome may be inconvenient or challenging,
EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (2)
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 61
but the change, nevertheless, is desired and embraced. In the case of nondiscretionary
change, people are faced with situations that are deeply
uncomfortable, but they stay in trouble because it is easier to do so than make
the emotional effort to change. Egan traces the roots of inertia in emotional
passivity, learned helplessness, disorganisation or vicious circle self-defeating
behaviour. The non-discretionary nature of change is because non-change is
likely to result in the person concerned becoming ill or making others suffer. The#p#分頁標題#e#
third form of change is by Harold Kushner in his book of the same name: When
Bad Things Happen to Good People (Kushner 1981). These bad things manifest
themselves in crisis, misfortunes or traumas in all their malignant shades. These
things happen because they happen- but some models of change can at least help
in the understanding of process, and support for, those involved.
For those actively wanting and seeking change, Maslows theory of Hierarchy of
Needs (Maslow 1968) offers an explanation as to why individuals seek transition
and change in their lives. As basic and intermediate needs (food, shelter,
affection) are met, aspirations rise, and people reach out to meet more intrinsic
needs, for example, the chance to gain more status at work or opportunity to
develop a new interest. In this situation, the Managing Change Approach
(Coleman 1991) offers a model for plotting the stages involved. Coleman
envisages six steps, including the first trigger step of transition: a sense of
wanting change and being able to identify and articulate the reasons and feelings
for this. This is an important first step, as it allows the decision-maker a sense of
control over the process and gain ownership of the idea. The decision-maker
proceeds then to steps two and three: information gathering, and considering the
options available. This leads to a choice (step four), action (step five) and later a
process of reassessment and evaluation (step six).
For this model to succeed there are, arguably, a number of assumptions to make
about the discretionary decision-makers. Veronica McGivney suggests a number
of favourable determinants in adult lives that can motivate them to return to
formal learning (McGivney 1993), and these can be adapted to connect with the
Coleman model. The first determinant of success for the Coleman model is that
the person concerned has a belief that he or she could cope with the transition
and final change desired. The second is that the person concerned knows, or can
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 62
find out, where to seek the information necessary to make an informed decision.
The third and fourth, crucially, is that the person concerned has enough optimism
about the future to contemplate change . and feels that he or she has some
control over their life. These latter points are critical pre-requisites for those
plotting a life course through the Coleman model of managing change.
The Coleman model connects too, with one advanced by Bill Law in recent years:
a Career Learning Theory, although Law has been at pains to point out that the
theory is relevant to all life choices, not just vocationally biased ones (Law 1997).
Law proposes a four stage model: for managing change: sensing, sifting, focusing#p#分頁標題#e#
and understanding. The first three of these connect with Colemans middle and
latter stages, although Law advances his third stage (focusing) by asserting that
this is achieved by a decision maker engaging with three specific questions: is the
choice idea salient; is it valued (in terms of acceptable to self and others); and is
it credible (perceived as a sensible or wise decision by self or others)? Laws
fourth stage: understanding is explained in terms of an individuals ability to
justify overall a particular course of action chosen. This connects with Colemans
first stage, but Law pursues the issue further by arguing understanding also
relates to an ability to identify and explain the relationship of past events to
future action, which forms the basis for sustainable action. The process of
understanding is also about being able to anticipate or visualise the probabilities
or consequences of actions.
Colemans model appears to assume, whilst Laws is more explicit in this respect,
that making choices involves a certain level of risk-taking. Law explicitly points
out that action always entails risk, but that risk can be assessed so that
probabilities are estimated:
Autonomous action must involve some such visualisation (whether
rational or not) of this is what will probably happen if I do this... It
requires the imagination of possible selves in possible futures (p.65).
Perhaps the Coleman and Law models are at their most salient in relation to
confident, intelligent people who are faced with relatively straightforward
economic-related decisions: career, work, accommodation, money. But perhaps
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 63
they are less applicable when considering change in the realms of human
emotion? The role of practitioners however, in these discretionary choice
situations can be one of oiling the wheels of change for decision-maker: including
supplying information, listening, encouraging and generally offering support and
guidance. The process of change is likely to happen without the practitioners
support, but it can happen often faster and more effectively with it.
However, a common scenario is one where a person is faced with stark choice,
particularly of the emotionally charged variety; the choice is often change or
suffer. At one level, there is choice, but has Egan has argued it is of the nondiscretionary
kind. Egan has noted that people in this situation can vacillate and
remain static, rather than face change. This emotional stasis has been related to
both lack of confidence - that a particular choice path will lead to certain desirable
outcomes; or pessimism about outcomes that might follow from the change
(Bandura 1991). In this scenario, the Stages of Change model proposed by#p#分頁標題#e#
Prochaska and DiClemente (1984) offers a way of understanding the process of
change . or a relapse back into the old habits. Prochaska and DiClemente related
their model specifically to smoking, but it can be equally applicable to any pattern
of behaviour rooted in addiction, habit or compulsion. In this model, the process
of change begins with contemplation, and the notion that change is for the
better. However, there can be an inner voice that warns: change is risky, so why
change? This can produce oscillation between wanting and not wanting change.
However, whatever the accelerant might prove to be, the person concerned can
commit and be ready for change, which propels them forward, and leads to the
maintenance stage, of maintaining change. The new situation in time becomes
the norm, but there is the possibility of relapse, and going back to the stating
point of the circle.
The practitioner has a particularly key role to play in helping in the process of
reflection at these different stages in the decision-makers life. Egan suggests six
ways of helping people in this situation strengthen self-efficacy to stay on track
with a chosen decision. The first is to help people develop any necessary skills to
succeed in the belief that self-efficacy is based on ability. The second is to offer
feedback on any deficiencies in performance. This helps decision-makers avoid
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 64
situations of self-delusion where they rationalise any lapse or diversion from their
original goals. The third is to help the decision-maker see how a change of
behaviour or direction produces results, which connects with the fourth: about
promoting others as role models of success. Steps five and six are related to
reducing the anxiety faced by people overly fearful of failure: by encouragement
and being generally supportive, and reminding the decision-maker of their original
motivations (Egan 1994).
The third group (the change victims) requires of practitioners the greatest level of
understanding about the anguish of change that people can experience. People
are often unwilling victims of change, including redundancy, sudden bereavement,
financial disaster. Many of the models of change that are applicable to this
situation are similar in tracing a pattern of shock, guilt, bewilderment (or anger),
a search for meaning, then gradual acceptance of the change (see Sinfield (1985)
and Coleman and Chiva (1991), in relation to redundancy; and Kubler-Ross,
(1970), in relation to death and dying). Some of the earliest studies that noted
this pattern date back to the 1930s with studies of unemployment, particularly
the experience of older workers (Eisenberg and Lazarsfield (1938), as cited in#p#分頁標題#e#
Sinfield (1985), p.191). These noted then the impact of shock on the newly
unemployed, followed by an active hunt for work, during which the individual is
still optimistic. But when all job-seeking efforts fail, the person becomes anxious
and suffers depression, which can lead to fatalism and adaptation to a narrower
state.
More recent studies have confirmed this pattern still applies today, particularly for
the older worker (see Harrison (1976) for example). Kubler-Ross (1970) and
Coleman and Chiva (1991), both note that anger is often a feature of response to
sudden changes, as well as guilt, self-doubt and depression. The anger is of the
why me variety, and when there is often no rational answer to this question,
depression can follow from the realisation of the powerlessness of individuals in
the path of unstoppable forces.
There is however, a gradual acceptance of and adaptation to the situation. Alvin
Toffler suggests too, that an ability to cope (and recover) from traumatic change
depends on the relative security of other aspects of our lives. He argues that we
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 65
can cope with enormous amounts of change, pressure, complexity and confusion,
provided at least one area of our life remains relatively stable (Toffler 1970). He
suggests that there are five main Stability Zones:
1. Ideas: for example, deeply felt religious beliefs, or strong commitment to a
philosophy, political ideology or cause;
2. Places: places that individuals can relate to, on either a large scale (a
country) or smaller scale, such as home, street or even office;
3. Things: favourite, familiar, comforting possessions, and especially things
related to childhood or emotional events;
4. People: particularly valued and enduring relationships with others,
especially friends;
5. Organisation: institutes, clubs or societies can also offer an important
source of stability and focus for self-identity.
The role of the practitioner with responsibility for managing or supporting change
in all three situations outlined is to firstly ascertain whether the person concerned
is a discretionary or non-discretionary change seeker, or thirdly a change-victim,
as each require different types of help or support, in ways outlined earlier. The
practitioners support for the change-victim can be particularly valuable. This
support can take the form of encouraging the individual to talk through the
change experiences and to release feelings of anger. An understanding of these
stages can help the practitioner locate a stage the change-victim appears to be in
and to assist that person to begin to explore relevant new life options and
possibilities. Tofflers idea of Stability Zones is especially useful in this context too,#p#分頁標題#e#
in allowing the person concerned to put change into an overall life perspective and
to value the other more stable parts of their life.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 66
References
Bandura, A. (1991). Human Agency: The Rhetoric and the Reality. American
Psychologist, 46, pp.157-161.
Coleman, A. and Chiva, A. (1991). Coping with Change- focus on retirement.
London: Health Education Authority
Egan, G. (1994). The Skilled Helper: a problem-management approach to helping.
Belmont: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Harrison, R. (1976). The Demoralizing Experience of Prolonged Unemployment.
Department of Employment Gazette, 84, April, pp.330-49.
Kubler-Ross, E. (1970). On Death and Dying. London: Tavistock Publications.
Kushner, H.S. (1981). When Bad Things Happen to Good People. London: Pan
Books.
Law, B. (1996). A Career-Learning Theory, in A.Watts et al, Rethinking Careers
Education and Guidance: Theory, Policy and Practice. London: Routledge.
McGivney, V. (1993). Adult Learners, Education and Training. London:
Routledge/Open University.
Maslow, A (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand.
Prochaska and DiClemente (1984). Stages and Processes of Self-Change of
Smoking: Towards an Integrated model of Change. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, vol. 51 (3) pp. 390-35.
Sinfield, A. (1985). Being Out of Work. In C.R. Littler (ed.) The Experience of
Work. Aldershot: Gower/Open University.
Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. N.Y: Random House.
S
z
a
f
w
o
s
p
b
In this assignment the sources above are
listed under the heading References. This
is because the student has made use of
everything read in preparation for writing the
assignment and cited all the sources in the
text.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 67
Answers to the quiz on page 52
You had to decide whether a citation in the text was needed in the following
situations.
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and
diagrams in your assignment. These may be
items directly copied or which have been a
source of collation for you.
併
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model
or practice associated with a particular writer.
併
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety
of sources about what has happened over a
period of time and when the summary is unlikely
to be a cause of dispute or controversy.
併
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that
you believe is important and that you summarise
in your assignment.
併
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that#p#分頁標題#e#
has found a measure of agreement and support
amongst commentators.
併
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that
you introduced and referenced earlier in the
assignment.
併
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and
when there is unlikely to be any significant
disagreement with your statements or
summaries.
併
8. When using quotations in your assignment.
併
9. If you copy and paste items from the
Internet where no authors name is shown.
(You should cite the name of the Organisation
or website).
併
10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own
words) another persons idea that you feel is
particularly significant or likely to be a subject of
debate.
併
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 68
ENDNOTE
EndNote is a useful bibliographic tool, which can help you keep track of the
books, journals and other sources that you have used to write reports or essays.
If you enter reference information for all of the resources that you use into
EndNote, you can then use the program to create bibliographies for your essays,
theses and dissertations. Once the basic task of manually entering references has
been mastered, you will be able to move on to formatting your bibliography,
linking it to your Microsoft Word documents to create references in the text, and
exporting and importing references, including the University of Bradford Library
Catalogue.
You can use EndNote free on Cluster Room PCs at the University. To buy a copy
of Endnote for personal use, please complete the application form at
www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/endnote/about.php and take it for validation to
either JB Priestley Building Reception or the School of Management Library
counter. You will be asked to provide proof of your status at the University.
A comprehensive EndNote manual is available in the School of Management and
J B Priestley Libraries. Ask at Reception where to find these.
NEED HELP WITH REFERENCING?
If you need help in referencing any source in an assignment, you
can contact Colin Neville, Effective Learning Officer for the School
and the author of this booklet.
Email: [email protected]
Telephone: (01274) 234414
Visit: room 0.10 Airedale Building, School of Management
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 69
FURTHER READING
These are all the titles in booklets in the Effective Learning series:
1. Return to Part-time Study
2. Return to Full-time Study
3. The First Semester
4. Time Management#p#分頁標題#e#
5. Accelerated Learning
6. 20 Tips for Effective Learning
7. Six Steps to Effective Reading
8. Effective Note Making
9. Effective Writing
10.Essay Writing (1) stages of essay writing
11.Essay Writing (2) planning and structuring your essays
12.Essay Writing (3) finding your own voice in essays
13. References and Bibliographies
14. Report Writing
15. Pass Your Exams
16. Your Assignment Results . and how to improve them
17. Presentations
18. Group Work
19. Introduction to Research and Research Methods
20. Foundations of Good Research
21. Writing Your Management Project Report or Dissertation
You can download any of these from the School of Management Homepages:
Resources. Effective Learning link, or contact the Effective Learning Service,
tel. 4414 (internal), Email: [email protected], or visit room 0.10 Airedale
Building at the School of Management.
The booklets can also be found in the School of Management library, in the foyer
of the Airedale Building and in the main entrance/foyer of the Emm Lane building.
In the School of Management and J.B. Priestley libraries, there is a study skills
section at D.371.30281
RECOMMENDED READING:
British Standards Institution (1990). Recommendations for Citing and Referencing
Published Material, BS 5605: 1990. London: BSI.
Bradford University Library, Cite em Right: how to give good bibliographic
references: this is an excellent guide to using references and is available in both a
printed version and on the Internet: available from the University libraries, and
online at www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/cdrom/cite.pdf
Li, X. and Crane, N. B. (1996). Electronic Styles: a handbook for citing electronic
information. 2nd ed. Medford, N.J.: Information Today.
University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 70
Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism.
Maidenhead: Open University Press (available from August 2007).
Walker, J.R. and Taylor, T (1998) The Columbia Guide to Online Style. New York:
Columbia University Press. (This is a useful guide to referencing all forms of
electronic information).
SOME RECOMMENDED INTERNET SITES ON REFERENCING
For referencing legal sources: The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal
Authorities at http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml
For information on how to avoid plagiarism: The Plagiarism Advisory Service
at http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/
For advice on when and how to cite the work of authors: Central European
University at #p#分頁標題#e#http://www.ceu.hu/writing/sources.htm
A useful guide for citing Internet sources: Bournemouth University:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citing_internet_sourc.html
More on the Harvard Style of referencing: Bournemouth University:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html
OTHER USEFUL STUDY SKILLS GUIDES:
Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skills Handbook. London: Palgrave.
(This book contains lots of bite-sized chunks of advice and information presented
in a lively and visually interesting way. This is an excellent general study skills
guide for all undergraduate or postgraduate students).
Giles, K. and Hedge, N. (1998) The Managers Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes:
Open University Press. (This is a study skills guide written for business studies
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University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies
Effective Learning Service 71
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THANKS
The author would like to thank Dr. David Spicer and Dr. Deli Yang at the School of
Management for their help in its initial preparation.
c Colin Neville at the School of Management wrote this booklet. It must not be
copied or reproduced without the permission of the author. Contact:
[email protected]#p#分頁標題#e#.
Last amended January 2007.