Ⅰ. Introduction

”The world will become a country.“ Everyone is familiar with this sentence, and from this sentence people can realize the importance of learning foreign languages. This thesis mainly focuses on advantages of learning Japanese as a student of English major. Loanword is the main advantage of learning, 80% of Japanese loanword come from English, it means that people have mastered a lot of words before their beginning to study. Through introduction the history, character, and effect of loanword, people can realize their superiorities. Transfer is the largest difficulty for foreign language study, but for choosing Japanese as a second language, transfer is not barrier but also advantages. The transfer between Japanese and English is larger than other languages, people will not be confused. There are also some psychological advantages on learning another foreign language.

Besides the advantages, there are also some disadvantages, for example, the problem of culture and language families. English speakers belong to western and Japanese belong to eastern, they dwell in different areas and do research into different kinds of culture, then the difficulty increases. 

Ⅱ. Advantages of Learning Japanese as a Student of English Major

There are many advantages of learning Japanese as a student of English major, such as loanword, transfer and the advantages on the physical and psychological aspect.

2.1 The Main Factor of Advantage—Loanword

Loanword is very important in Japanese, if people want to learn it well, they must be familiar with it.

2.1.1 The Definition of Loanword

A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. Loanwords can also be called ”borrowings“. There are lots of loanwords written by Katakana in Japanese. The origin of Modern Japanese loanwords is quite complex, the early loanwords mostly come from Portuguese and Dutch; Since the modern times, German, French, Italian and English and so on have entered Japanese massively, particularly English, not only has occupied Japanese loanwords, but also become more and more.

2.1.2 The Character of Loanword

Loan words are often heavily Japanized in various ways (see below), which is a complicating factor not only for students of the Japanese language but also for Japanese students of foreign languages: 

1. The pronunciation of loan words is Japanized, and sometimes quite different from the original pronunciation: e.g. curtain=kaaten, elevator=elebeetaa, girl=gaaru.

2. Many loan words get abbreviated in ways they do not get abbreviated in the original language: e.g. suupaa=supermarket, kilo=kilometer (and kilogram), depaato=department store, waapuro=word processor. 

3. The meanings of some loan words do not correspond with the words’original meanings: e.g. ”manshon“from the English ”mansion“means ”condominium“. #p#分頁標題#e#

And finally, some ”loan words“ are actually Japanese creations rather than loan words. For example, ”salaryman“ is a Japanese word for a typical Japanese company worker.

2.1.3 The Effects of Loanword

Introducing the loanword mainly introduce its effects, only understanding the effect people can realize the importance of the loanword.

2.1.3.1 Japan’s Language Policy

Shibata (1985) states that Japanese is so firmly entrenched as the one and only national language that no legal designation of its official status is necessary. Yet at least three public figures in modern Japanese history have suggested that Japan abandon its national language in favor of another. Meiji political leader and educator Mori Arinori (1847-1889) argued in favor of establishing English as the language of Japan and solicited the advice of one of the world’s linguistic authorities. In 1946, during another turbulent era in Japanese history, Shiga Naoya (1883-1972), a highly revered literary figure, advocated replacing Japanese with French, while Ozaki Yukio advocated the use of English. Many other Japanese have expressed the feeling that their national language is grammatically deficient and lacking in lexical resources. If this is a widespread perception in Japanese society it might explain some of the popular enthusiasm for the study of English and other foreign languages, but there are also other concrete economic incentives which are undoubtedly of greater significance.

2.1.3.2 Loanword in the Lexicon

Japanese view their language as one of the principle factors that makes their society unique. In fact, Japanese commonly believe that the language they speak is completely unrelated to any known language family (Higa, 1977). Yet this does not mean that modern Japanese is seen as a pure language, isolated from or resistant to the influences of other languages. Chinese, English, and other Western languages are widely recognized as having had great influence on the Japanese lexical inventory. The Japanese writing system itself was borrowed with adaptations from Chinese and includes two different groups of readings for almost every character: native Japanese kun-yomi and Chinese-based on-yomi. The vocabulary items later borrowed from Western languages are so prominent that there is a special term to designate them---gairaigo. 

    A survey conducted by the Japanese National Language Research Institute in 1964 tallied a generous portion of the lexical inventory (47.5%) as having been derived from Chinese (Loveday, 1986). These loan words came into the country, along with a massive cultural infusion. The new vocabulary and the culture that accompanied it were adopted by an educated elite within Japanese society.

The survey concluded that non-Chinese loan words comprise about ten percent of the vocabulary of common usage and that about 90% of those loan words have come from English. English, particularly American English, has become the predominant foreign contact language in Japan. Haarman suggests that one of the ways loan words enter Japanese is through what he terms ”commercial Japanese“---the Japanese and foreign language mix used in commercial texts intended for Japanese audiences. In addition to media personnel, Loveday (1986) includes copy-writers, journalists, translators, and academics among the main Japanese agents of dissemination.#p#分頁標題#e#

The motivation for this massive lexical borrowing came from the rapid westernization and modernization that occurred after the coming of Commodore Perry (Loveday, 1986) and frantic industrial and economic growth after the Second World War (Takahara, 1991). It allowed the Japanese people to distinguish between traditional and Western styles (nomiya---bar and kimono---suits, for example) and to avoid the connotations of some of their established lexical items, while adding the social prestige associated with Western culture.

2.1.3.3 Loanword in Personal Communication

Many of the uses of foreign language might be characterized as impersonal, institutional uses of language. Increased contact between Japanese and people from other language communities, however, is providing more and more opportunities for the use of foreign languages for personal communication. International tourism has increased dramatically from 4 million per annum in the 1970’s to 8 million in 1988 and was expected to go to 10 million by 1991. Contact with foreigners and their languages is increasing abroad, but also within Japan. The literature on codes witching contains a lot of theories explaining how people choose which language to use when confronted with a bilingual situation. While bilingual situations within a monolingual society, like Japan, have largely been overlooked, some behavior patterns have been noticed.

Most foreigners in Japan have noticed that many Japanese people are extremely surprised, even taken aback, if they speak more than a few words of Japanese. The sociolinguistic rules covering this situation seem to be clear: (a) Westerners cannot speak Japanese; (b) unless they are of Asian ancestry; (c) they all, however, understand English .

Some research, however, shows that 94-96 percent of the Japanese favor the use of Japanese when talking with a non-Japanese foreigner and that 97 percent do, in fact, speak Japanese to foreigners who can use the language. Jorden (1977) came up with some similar findings, but noted that a ”universal howl of protest and disbelief has been raised by all foreigners with Japan experience“.

2.1.3.4 Loanword in the Media

Foreign language usage in Japanese mass media is one of the main features in the modern Japanese culture. Studies of Japanese commercials and advertising demonstrate that commercial managers employ positive ethnocultural stereotypes, usually of white North Americans or Europeans in the advertising of numerous products. Multilingual commercial texts used for sentence level communication almost always supplement the native Japanese with English or French, whereas Italian, Spanish, and German tend to be used in background music, very short utterances, or the naming of products. Though all of these languages share a general prestige, Haarmann feels that Japanese society ranks them in the order: English, French, Italian, and then German. English evokes an image of quality, reliability, and modern living. The texts and expressions used in these commercials are not intended to be understood by the ordinary Japanese, and aren’t. Although individual lexical items might be understood, the major portion of the text is simply used to create an image and attach prestige value to the products being advertised. In Haarman’s opinion, the English language attracts much more general prestige than French or any other foreign language. Kloss (1969) has termed this kind of multiple language use ”impersonal bilingualism“.#p#分頁標題#e#

Though not recorded in the literature, foreigners living in Japan for any length of time soon realize that the audio and video entertainment industries have a very strong multilingual component. Somewhere between junior high and senior high school a great many Japanese develop a taste for the cosmopolitan sounds and images that foreign music and movies provide. CD and video rental shops carry large stocks of contemporary selections and old standards from outside of Japan, especially from America. Even televisions often have a multiplex sound system that allows viewers to listen to foreign programs in the original language.

Magazines are not immune from the influence of foreign languages and their respective images. A group of graduate students came up with a list of almost 50 magazines whose titles were not only foreign but also written in the Roman alphabet, rather than the syllabary usually prescribed for foreign loan words.

2.1.3.5 Loanword in Society

All junior high and senior high school students study English. And data from a survey of 10,381 university students indicates that up to 30% actually begin studying English while they are in elementary school. English testing is an important component of the admissions process. Once in college about 16% actively participate in their English classes and an equal number supplement their English studies outside of school, where English conversation schools are a big business. About 20% read English newspapers or magazines or listen to English programs on radio or television.

In addition to those students who study English as a foreign language in Japan, there has been an increasing number of Japanese living abroad. Figures for 1977 show that more than 19,000 school-age children were living abroad. At that time 8,000 of them were attending Japanese schools established by the government, seven thousand were attending Japanese language schools on the weekends, and the remaining four thousand were not attending any Japanese schools. Many of these children were returning to Japan more fluent in a foreign language than in Japanese. Back in Japan the chief concern or annoyance of teachers conducting special classes for these children was their foreign behavior, not their Japanese language ability. Public opinion seems to be divided between those that want them to get rid of their non-Japanese behavior and those that appreciate the diversity it provide. With all the public concern and special programs being set up for returnees, there is increasing evidence that, far from being a disadvantaged minority within Japanese society, they are in fact becoming a new, fashionable, international Japanese elite. 

English and other foreign languages are not just subjects to be studied in school. There are indications that foreign languages are instrumentally involved in many areas of academic research. Medical researchers who want to get responses to their work find it more effective to publish in English than in Japanese. Scholars in fields, such as the social sciences and humanities do not utilize foreign languages in publishing their work to the same extent as those in scientific and technological fields and, as a result, find themselves linguistically isolated from their foreign colleagues.#p#分頁標題#e#

NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), a government subsidized network, broadcasts public television throughout Japan, a channel of general programs and an educational channel. In 1977 it offered 50 hours of language learning programs a week, in six languages: the six official languages of the United Nations (English, Chinese, Spanish, Russian, and French) and German. Since then two more, Japanese as a Second Language and Korean, have been added. Sesame Street has been broadcast for a number of years on NHK. To this NHK has added a bilingual program for children to help bridge the gap from Japanese monolingualism to bilingualism. In that way the children can pick up English naturally from both visual cues and also the linguistic cues found in the Japanese utterances.

Conversation schools and vocational schools that emphasize foreign language abound throughout Japan. The motivations for those that attend include professional training, study as a hobby, preparation for a move overseas, and sometimes even a desire to seek an international marriage.

Whatever places Westerners frequent, there is English to make them feel at home. Western-style restaurants often have at least a few copies of their menus in English, French, or Italian depending on the kind of food served. Tax offices in Japan provide all foreign residents with an English translation of the income tax form and detailed instructions in English. Here in Nagoya, there is even a special section where foreign residents can go to get help with their tax returns from English-speaking employees. Misonoza Theater, also in Nagoya, which stages kabuki plays in October each year, sells bilingual programs with the summaries of the plays in both English and Japanese.

According to Suzuki (1987), the Japanese government conducts all international affairs in foreign languages. High officials in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs do not seem to be interested in changing the situation, for instance by getting the United Nations to make Japanese one of their official languages. At least one official does his best to discourage foreign diplomats from even studying Japanese.

When naming new projects, the National Police Agency uses English words, put into kana , because it is easier to get funding from the Ministry of Finance that way (Suzuki, 1987). One writer probably reflected the views of a number of Japanese when he wrote a letter to the editor complaining of foreign names being used as part of the Metropolitan Police Department’s plan to start lunchtime promenades on Tokyo street. It has been noted, on the other hand, that government publications, scrupulously avoid direct loan words as much as possible.

In the past few decades, wasei-eigo (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as wanpataan and sukinshippu, although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in a non-Japanese context. A small number of such words have been borrowed back into English. #p#分頁標題#e#

Additionally, many native Japanese words have become commonplace in English, due to the popularity of many Japanese cultural exports. Words such as sushi, judo, karate, sumo, karaoke, origami, tsunami, samurai, haiku, ninja, sayonara, rickshaw (from 人力車 jinrikisha), futon, and many others have become part of the English language. See list of English words of Japanese origin for more. 

2.1.3.6 Japanese Attitudes towards English 

Japanese people often tell Westerners living in Japan that they have an inferiority complex towards Western culture. Perhaps this stems from the historical circumstances of early contact---during the Meiji era, when Japan’s elite were struggling to modernize the country and assimilate Western technology, much as they had with the Chinese hundreds of years before. The strength and wealth of the nations of Europe may have been projected onto their languages as well as cultures, giving rise to radical ideas of changing Japan’s national language to English or French. The new foreign loan words, associated as they were with the world’s strongest nations and Japan’s political and social elite, quite naturally took on certain general attributes of prestige. In order to focus more closely on how these attributes might be reflected in the images of modern Japan, let’s turn our attention towards the media.

Our discussion here shows that English, and to a lesser extent other foreign languages, are used by Japanese in Japan in a myriad of ways. Is it as some have claimed used only ”as a tool for absorbing the fruits of Foreign civilization“? Certainly this could explain why language schools and educational programs in the mass media are so popular. And magazines with foreign titles might sell better, because people feel that the Western nations are a rich source of knowledge and information. The Japanese who had the most direct access to these valuable sources might well form an elite within Japanese society, as seems to be happening with bilingual children returning from overseas. And, of course, the corollary of such a strategy would be to keep non-Japanese from becoming proficient in the national language and to avoid putting any information into foreign languages or even easily accessible Japanese, like foreign loan words.

Yet, if Japanese are fond of western culture but distrust foreigners, where does this leave foreign languages? Are they more closely associated with their respective cultures or the people who speak them? Wouldn’t such negative images handicap the advertiser who tries to use them to sell products? And how about the Ministry of Finance’s seeming preference for programs with foreign names? The real problem is that anecdotes and theories abound, but empirical evidence just doesn’t seem to exist; nor does a detailed description of the use of foreign languages in Japan.

2.2 Other Factors of Advantage

The other advantages can be further analysis from three aspects, and the part of transfer is more important than the others.  #p#分頁標題#e#

2.2.1 Advantages in the Language Transfer

Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps         imperfectly) acquired.

There are a number of reasons for language teachers and linguists to consider more closely the problem of transfer. Teaching may become more effective through a consideration of difference between languages and between cultures. An English teacher aware of English-based and Japanese-based transfer errors, for example, will be able to pinpoint problems of English-speaking and Japanese ESL(English as a second language) students better, and in the process, communicate the very important message to students that their linguistic and cultural background is important to the teacher. Also, consideration of the research showing similarities in errors made by learners of different backgrounds will help teachers to see better what may be difficult or easy for anyone learning the language they are teaching. 　

Because of the familiar among English French, German and so on, there are more difficulties in learning, so people choose Japanese, the transfer between Japanese and English is larger than any other ones, people can distinct them easily. 

2.2.2 The Theoretical Factor

The Universal Hypothesis thinks that the language of human has a common structure. The language consists of a series of parameters which is uncertain before they get touch with the practical languages or have no value. If people mastered rules of one language, others are easy to learn. 

The studies on English acquisition have influenced enormously those on Japanese acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in English especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding Japanese. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in English also provide insights and perspective in the study of Japanese. Just as Littlewood (1986:4) summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.

2.2.3 The Psychological Factor

Language-dependent effect on memory is a new type of context-dependent memory, which combine the features of other types of dependable memory and has unique property related to language. Through this effect, people may obtain a deeper understanding of the relationship between language and memory. Language–dependent effect is affected by many factors such as the familiarity of languages, characteristics of language, and processing levels of learned materials. In this study people determined the effects of the proceeding levels on language-dependent recall in Mandarin and Cantonese. The study included 2 experiments. Give them the same vocabularies, and other conditions are also same, the result is the second experiment remembered more than the other. #p#分頁標題#e#

Ⅲ. Disadvantages of Learning Japanese as a Student of English Major

There are also some disadvantages of learning Japanese, such as the culture and language families. English and Japanese belong to different language families which make the difficulties increase. Through introducing their characters on culture and language families people can realize the disadvantages.  

3.1 Different Culture Background

When people learn a new word they tend to look for its meaning in the word itself. Yet in addition to its dictionary meanings, the same word may stir up different associations in people. Take the dog for example. In the United States, the word dog in the most instances conjures up an image of a furry, domesticated family pet. In some areas of the world, such as Hong Kong, however, dogs are considered to be a culinary amenity and often are eaten. Therefore, the word dog elicits a quite different meaning because of different culture experiences. This example indicates that language use is heavily tinted with its culture.

From the above, people can infer that a language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. In a word, language expresses culture reality. When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific culture and becomes socialized in certain ways. If he moves to another community or country, he may be recognized easily not as a member of the local community group but as a newcomer from the ways he uses his language. This implies that language embodies cultural identity. To dig it further, a language, as a system of signs with their own culture substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of identity. People are identified via their use of language. In this sense, language symbolizes cultural reality.

On the other hand, language can express the culture, to be more specific, the community culture represented its social conventions, norms and social appropriateness, the culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically. Sharing a same community culture, people have acquired common ways of viewing the world through their speech interactions with other members of some same group. While the commonness is constantly reinforced, the discourse community converges. (Here the discourse community refers to the common ways in which members of some social group use language to meet their needs.) The uniqueness of each group’s language uses in grammatical, lexical, and phonological aspects etc, the ways they talk and the style with which they talk etc. constitute different discourse accents. Different discourse accents suggest different social status. For example, people in the West End in London speak differently from the East Enders.

    Historically, each culture has its past and tradition, to put it simply, the culture of everyday practices has been evolved and become consolidated over time. A culture consists both of its ways how a social group represents itself, its technological achievements, monuments and works of art and of its historical identity recorded and passed down by the pop culture. These altogether constitute its social identity. For example, on the mentioning of the United States, people may think of its advanced computing technology represented by the Microsoft, its pop songs and the Hollywood movies. However, its culture would be incomplete without the Declaration of Independence and other historic events. It is language that has played a major role in socializing the people and in perpetuating culture, especially in print form.#p#分頁標題#e#

    In addition, culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life. They serve a metaphor for its cultural reality. The well-known American Dream personified by Abraham Lincoln and Benjamin Franklin and others is just an illustration. Therefore, language is not only intrinsically related to what the culture is and what it was, but also related to the culture of imagination governing people’s decisions as well as actions. The interplay between language and culture may result in various forms of socialization and people with different cultures may be socialized in different ways with different acculturation.

    Although language and culture are inextricably intertwined, this relationship is not analogous to that of structures and processes. Rather, culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem. Linguistic competence is one variety of social behavior. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.

    To sum up, since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. On the other hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.

3.2 Different Language Families

A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. An accurately identified family is a phylogenetic unit (forming a linguistic phylum); that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all attested descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Most of the world’s languages are known to belong to families; for many others, however, family relationships are not known or only tentatively proposed.

The concept of language families is based on the assumption that over time languages gradually diverge into dialects and then into new languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than biological ancestry, because there are extreme cases of languages mixing due to language contact in conquest or trade, whereas biological species normally don’t interbreed. In the formation of creole languages and other types of mixed languages, there may be no one ancestor of a given language. In addition, many sign languages develop in isolation and may have no relatives at all. However, these cases are relatively rare and most languages can be unambiguously classified.

The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly, since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method—a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the list of language families. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called Proto-Indo-European. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing.#p#分頁標題#e#

Sometimes, though, a proto-language can be identified with an historically known language. Provincial dialects of Latin (”Vulgar Latin“) gave rise to the modern Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers). Similarly, dialects of Old Norse are the proto-language of Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic.

Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family, because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. However, the term family is not restricted to any one level of this ”tree“. The Germanic family, for example, is a branch of the Indo-European family. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. The terms superfamily, phylum,[citation needed] and stock are applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate. The isolation of modern Greek, however, is not typical of its relationship to other languages at other times in its history. Several Greek dialects evolved out of the larger Indo-European language group; and later, Greek words influenced many other languages. By contrast, the Basque language is a living modern language and a near perfect isolate. The history of its lexical, phonetic, and syntactic structures is not known, and is not easily associated to other languages, though it has been influenced by Romance languages in the region, like linguistic methods.

Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate; but the meaning of isolate in such cases is usually clarified. Castilian Spanish, Occitan, and French.

English and Japanese obviously belong to different language families, accordingly, they have a large distinctions. At the same time, the distance between the two countries is enormous which made them be far from the proto-language. Then, communicate with the introduction of the language family above, the difficulty of learning is obvious. If people want to decrease the difficulty, they must learn the knowledge of language family well and make the change rules clearly. 

    Ⅳ. Conclusion

From the introduction above, readers can make a prudent choice in deciding whether to choose Japanese as their second language or not. That is also the aim of writing this thesis. The thesis introduces the definition, character and effects of the loanwords in a detail way to put emphasis on its importance. Although transfer part is told briefly, and the theoretical, psychological factors are also written briefly, they are helpful for learning. The third part introduces the disadvantages of learning Japanese as a student of English major. Since everyone is familiar with the cultural background of Britain and Japan, the thesis chose the theory problems to dissertate.#p#分頁標題#e#

At last, the difficulty of learning the foreign languages, which belong to different language families is explained in the thesis through introducing the language family. It is hoped that the thesis could help readers in making a prudent choice and learn from it to some extent. Despite some study results have been achieved, the thesis is far from perfect in some aspects.

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