國際寫作視角
 

介紹：
 

“寫作已經成為商業世界中最容易被忽視的技巧之一了，然而那確是對生產力來說最為重要的了。”美國美聯社的林葛倫辛說道；格斯女士與美國高管漢森在基于調查上得出的發現。如果這個結論是正確的，那么一個關鍵問題接下來就出現了—為什么那么多在大學成績平平的作家們，會考慮到一個人寫作文筆好能在以后的工作中脫穎而出呢？這個問題一直是一個長期飽受爭議的話題，不僅注重寫作的重要性，還需要得到解決方法。關于學生的寫作有許多的問題，因此很多人都轉向了不同的教育領域，從而尋找提高學生寫作技巧的答案。還有一個問題，其中涉及到的學科問題就是“美國學生與國際學生如何做比較，相對于寫作的重點在教育系統有任何的不同嗎？”這就是“國際化的視角”。這篇文章的主題就是關于文化，學生，學校與學生寫作之間的對比。
 

An International Writing Perspective 

 

Introduction: 

 

“Writing has become one of the most neglected skills in the business world, yet one of the most important to productivity,” states Lin Grensing of the Associated Press; Mrs. Gensing based these findings on surveys with US executives (Hansen). If this conclusion is valid, then a key question follows -- Why are so many universities producing mediocre writers, considering that an individual who writes effectively will stand out in the work force? This question has been the subject of a long debate focusing not only on the importance of writing but the method needed to implement a solution. There are numerous concerns about student writing, and therefore many people have turned to different areas of education for the answer to improving students’ writing. One question, which deals with this subject is, “How do American students compare with international students, and are there any differences in the educational systems with respect to writing emphasis?” This “International Perspective,” the topic of this paper, is a comparison among cultures, students, schools, and their writing. There are hundreds of countries in the world, each with their own educational system in place. Although most countries view writing as a necessity for students, only a handful have begun the initiative of requiring writing in a university setting. Therefore, this paper will compare writing characteristics of countries with similar economic and cultural positions as the United States, including Canada, Britain, and Australia. Furthermore, this paper will identify the degree to which writing plays a role in each countries educational system and will develop an understanding of how countries view writing as a method to adequately prepare graduates for the business world. #p#分頁標題#e#

 

Summary: 

 

There are many studies around the world, comparing the writing abilities of high school students among countries. In many cases, the United States continuously ranks far below its competitors, including the most recent rankings presented in 2002 by the U.N. Children’s Fund (UNICEF), who has ranked the United States 18th out of 24 countries when comparing the percent of 15 year-olds falling below key educational benchmarks; Canada, Australia, and Britain all ranked in the top 7 (CNN.com). During the 1999-2000 school year, American students tested in grades 4, 8, and 12 scored below minimum criteria set by the National Assessment and Governing Board. This board outlines the essential basic skills deemed minimal to meet academic standards, including writing proficiency. It was found that students who learned certain forms of writing, such as “process writing,” performed better on the exam, since they were taught how to analyze their ideas (Nations Report). Gail Hahn, a Chemical Engineer, who supports writing throughout colleges, considers “writing as the cornerstone for communication, and can be found in any form, including, messages, technical papers, reports, appraisals, and captions.” She asserts that if students lag behind in writing throughout high school, it is no wonder that college graduates, whose writing skills are not developed during the college years, fall into a large category of writers with deficient skills; this includes the inability to write a simple business letter (Alumni). The entire issue with student writing, however, dates back to the 1800’s, when it became apparent that colleges and universities needed to incorporate writing into other disciplines, outside of the English department (Sully). In 1885, Harvard, America’s leading institution began requiring freshman composition courses; this was an idea that quickly spread to other American universities. However, although other universities followed Harvard’s example to improve America’s writing with the intent of improving student thinking and communication, many of them questioned whether the commitment was worth the time and money (Conners). 

 

In the early 1900’s the United States was the only nation that required university students to complete general writing courses; however, there was still no specific requirement for “formal writing courses,” which would offer writing in a variety of settings (Sully). It wasn’t until the middle of the 1900’s that this idea went international, and although there is currently no strong commitment to mandatory writing courses in other countries, as compared to the United States, there is awareness about the advantages to increasing student writing abilities. In 1960, the United Kingdom, developed an idea entitled, “language across the curriculum movement,” trying to incorporate writing into other courses and majors. This idea was then brought over to the United States in the 1970’s and reevaluated to incorporate specific required writing courses, general to all students. This project was then renamed, “Writing Across the Curriculum Project (WAC).” Research in Britain and the United states has continued since that time. There are currently schools across the United States that are involved in this initiative by integrating writing into other classes, requiring specific writing courses, and establishing writing centers. The three main goals of the program include: 1) Improving the ability of students to solve problems, 2) Improving students’ ability to examine ideas carefully and support them with evidence, and 3) Improving students’ ability to incorporate and synthesize information (Sully). #p#分頁標題#e#

 

Although Britain began this “across curriculum project,” it has kept with its original notion of just incorporating writing principles and techniques into other courses, not requiring all students to take a specific writing course (Oatham). Along with Britain, students in Australia are not required to take writing courses; however, they are encouraged to cross disciplines and pick a writing class as an outlet for their creativity, according to Marion Campbell, creative writing professor at the University of Melbourne, Australia (Campbell). Similarly, Julia Oatham, who manages the curriculum for students studying abroad at City University in London, England, noted the rationale for requiring students to take strictly professional courses. It is based, not on the belief the British think their students are good writers, or that writing isn’t important in the professional world but rather on the fact students are already required to take an extra year of high school; this results in one less year at the university level, compared to American students. Also, British students are required to pass a series of examinations, known as “A levels,” which tend to evaluate student writing; these exams are considered to be much more difficult than the SAT’s. Therefore, the combination of, entrance exams, one less year at the university level, and the philosophy that students develop their non-academic skills on their own, explains the difference between course structures compared to the United States (Oatham). Unlike the British and Australian students, American high schools, as stated by Lyndall Wemm in her comparison between Australian and American Psychology majors, do not go in depth until late in their program and follow the philosophy that a shallow and broad education is the basis for a good life (Wemm). 

 

Although Britain and Australia are very limited in their ability to provide specific writing courses due to class and schedule constraints, Canada, has found that it must compete with American universities for student enrollment. Thus, Canada has attempted to implement steps to improve writing skills in their education system. According to a survey from the University of Victoria, only 20% of Canadian universities have some form of writing requirement; in addition, a few other universities have a combined humanities requirement, allowing students to take an optional writing course. In this same survey, writing departments were asked if they believed their curriculums were well established; only 5 out of 35 schools indicated there was a significant number of programs requiring writing courses in their university. Writing courses are designed to ensure students attain a high level of writing skills before graduation; however, it was concluded in this study that universities were not taking writing as a priority and therefore, because of budgeting, were increasing class sizes and decreasing the quality of the instructors (Survey). In a question posted on Canadian Exchange Newspaper website and edited by Robert Graves, Cathy Schryer asked whether there are writing practices in Canadian Universities, which are not available in the United States, or vice versa. Numerous professors and writing instructors answered her question and explained Canada’s predicament. Rob Irish stated that almost all of the universities in Canada, are public, and therefore do not have the funding to provide specific writing departments. He continued by stating that because of an increase in the number of students attending Canadian universities, a rise of 40,000 in the 1940’s to 400,000 in the late 1960’s, economic constraints have not allowed universities to meet this demand. Also, because Canadians tend to be more individualized in their teaching styles, writing has been incorporated into courses, instead of offered as a generalized required course. He also stated his opinion on the fact that separate writing courses are “contentless”; Irish would like to see his students take a course during their third year to focus on content and communication. In this same article, Ross Hunt explained that the Canadian education system is similar to the British system, where only the “elite”, who are assumed to already have a writing background, are attending university. Thus, writing courses are not required, since it is more efficient to incorporate writing assignments into other disciplines. Philippa Spoel, on the other hand, compared and contrasted Canada with America, by saying that Canadians tend to stress writing as an engagement with a subject matter, while Americans, view writing as form of self discovery, an engagement with “the self”. Robert Graves, who edited this article, ends with his opinion on the answers provided to Schryer’s question. He states the world is a different world that we live in and universities as well as the students that attend them are different then they were one hundred years ago. According to Graves, universities exist to extend economic and mechanical control over the world, where the effectiveness of writing, is a new question and one that needs to be integrated into society, in order to find this extension (Graves). #p#分頁標題#e#

 

Discussion: 

 

The “International Perspective” on writing varies from country to country. The differences are beyond a discussion of the importance of writing, but rather focus on the methods used to implement effective writing techniques into the curriculum. Universities in the United States have developed four-year programs, which provide adequate time for writing programs to be implemented, compared to strict three-year programs abroad. Also because of the varying high school curriculums in the United States, universities cannot be certain as to the writing background of their students. These schools, therefore, develop general writing courses, to ensure that their students are more informed. This process, however, is expensive requiring much time and effort. This is money and time that British, Australian, and Canadian universities have a constraint on, since they are mostly public three-year institutions, receiving limited funding. As noted in the UNICEF research stated previously, there are many studies around the world, comparing the educational abilities of high school students among countries. In many cases, the United States ranks far below its competitors. An analysis of these rankings leads to the realization that American high school students are provided with an inadequate educational background, when compared to other countries. Although many reasons can explain this fact, American universities generally believe implementing college writing courses and instruction will make up for this deficit and develop more well-rounded students and competitive graduates. This is in contrast to British universities, who focus on the courses within the students’ specific curriculum. However, British students, who feel that they need writing help, can take a course if they wish, leaving this decision to the student and not the university. It is obvious from Phillippa Spoels’ statement, that the philosophies between even neighboring countries are different, although, who is to say which is better or worse. 

 

The traditional British education system was put into place before America was conceived, and has produced some very famous writers and scientists, through world renowned universities, such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the British mindset, the Robert Frosts of the 21st century should concentrate on what they do best, and be taught to write, while science should be kept to the Charles Darwins; therefore, if either type of student (for example a writer or a scientist) develops an interest within other disciplines, the opportunity exists to take specific courses in that curriculum. This is in contrast to the American philosophy, where instructors wish to ensure students have a combination of skills across various disciplines to meet their career aspirations. The American belief focuses on the realization that an individual’s ideas, philosophies, and career aspirations change and evolve with time. However, the concern in the United States about where American high schools stand in comparison to the rest of the world needs to remain of paramount importance. #p#分頁標題#e#

 

Out of 24 countries, Britain, Australia, and Canada outranked the United States; the Asian countries of Japan and South Korea topped the list. With our dismal rankings, adequate steps must be initiated to improve the American standards. It is possible that the addition of courses in college, such as writing, may not necessarily ensure smarter students but will be the answer to making them “better citizens”; this is a key goal of the Syracuse University Writing program, a major asset to the University, requiring almost all majors to take two generalized writing courses. Even within Syracuse University there is debate over not only the need for these courses, but the methods with which they are taught. Although the writing program at SU has been in place for quite awhile, the debate on its relevance continues with no solid resolution. The University, along with, most universities across America, continue to require writing courses, realizing that in a world where jobs are scarce and competition is fierce, the job edge may be decided by those students with enhanced writing and communication skills. The differences among countries have now extended to how students are taught writing. Therefore, based on the answers to Cathy Schryers’ question (referred to in the summary section) and the research outlined in this report, major writing differences do exist among Canada, Britain, Australia, and the United States. 

 

Conclusion: 

 

A fact that cannot be taken for granted is the key belief that the development of excellent writing skills requires solid educational curriculum. Within the United States, writing courses have become a core requirement to ensure that those high school graduates, with deficient writing proficiency attending college, will graduate as excellent communicators with skills comparable to college graduates around the world. The research concluded in this paper, is only the beginning of what will most likely be a long debate about the future of writing courses. There are very few studies done comparing writing among countries at the college level. This is probably due to the limited number of writing courses required. “Writing Across the Curriculum” is a rather new project in terms of its history, and therefore it will take some time for it to find its place within America and the rest of the world. Because of the small amount of research completed among countries, it is difficult to conclude the precise reasoning as to why America is on the tail end of the educational rankings. Further research is needed to conclude if the discrepancy is based specifically on student writing in America, or if the extent of illiteracy in countries is correlated to insufficient methods in teaching writing skills. A student’s major is no prediction of the actual job position in the work force; a good example is Secretary of State, Colin Powell, a geology major who now represents the United States in international relations. The engineer, the doctor, or even, the actor, of today must be capable of communicating (orally and through composition) effectively in their personal and business relationships. This is a key goal of all academic programs, and although approached differently, has one outcome, which is the development of college graduates who will effectively contribute to a better world through solid communication skills. #p#分頁標題#e#

 

Works Cited 

 

“Alumni Voices.” Writing Across the Curriculum Online Posting. Jan. 2003 http://web.umr.edu/~wac/alumni.html. 

 

Campbell, Marion. E-mail to the author. 25 January. 2003. 

 

CNN.com. “UNICEF ranks countries on academics.” Online Posting. 26 Nov. 2002. CNN.com/Education. Feb 2003 http://www.cnn.com/2002/EDUCAION/11/26/education.rankings.reut/>. 

 

Connors, Robert J. Reconceiving Writing, Rethinking Writing Instruction. Mahwah, NJ: 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1995. Questia Media America, Inc. 2 February 2003 <http://www.questia.com>. 

 

Graves, Robert. Online Debate “The Canadian Question: A CASLL Exchange.” October 1998. CASLL listserv. 2 February 2003 <http://www.stthomasu.ca/inkshed/canwrite.htm>. 

 

Hansen, Randall and Katharine. “The Importance of Good Writing.” Indispensable Writing Resources 1991. Feb. 2003 http://www.quintcareers.com/writing/skills.html>. 

 

“The Nation’s Report Card.” National Assessment of Educational Progress. 1999. Feb. 2003 <http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/>. 

 

Oatham, Julia PhD. E-mail to the author. 7 February. 2003. 

 

Sully, Brenda. Home Page. 25 January. 2003. Writing Across the Curriculum Project, Malaspina University. April 1995 <http://www.mala.bc/www/wac/proj.htm>. 

 

Survey of First Year English Programs. 2000. Dept. of English, University of Victoria and the Canadian Association of Chairs of English. 2 February. 2003 <http://web.uvic.ca/~pjfinn/fys/fys-q3.html>. 

 

Wemm, Lyndall. “A Comparison Between Australian and American Education in Psychology.” Sept. 1997. 2 February 2003 <http://www.neurognostics.com.au/AcademicEquivs/OzziePsychoCringe.htm>.