高等教育的國際化發(fā)展

第二章為文獻(xiàn)中關(guān)于高等教育的國際化研究做出了五個(gè)方面的概述。第一，研究人員根據(jù)高等教育的國際化和國際化教育的組成部分，對(duì)其全球化影響作出了簡要概述。第二，作出了一系列總結(jié)，包括東南亞地區(qū)，東盟大學(xué)網(wǎng)絡(luò)與新加坡以及泰國和越南的社會(huì)政治結(jié)構(gòu)。第三，根據(jù)泰晤士報(bào)2012-213高等教育世界大學(xué)排名寫出國際高等教育體制組成部分的結(jié)構(gòu)的文獻(xiàn)。第四，表明國際化影響因素的現(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)的審查。最后，第五方面做出了系統(tǒng)理論的概述，經(jīng)SWOT分析和扎根理論，這將被用于本研究。

全球化對(duì)我國高等教育國際化發(fā)展的影響

全球化已經(jīng)通過使用技術(shù)和電信（戈德史密斯，Greenbert，羅伯遜，與胡燦，2003）手段對(duì)各國之間時(shí)間和空間的概念產(chǎn)生影響。

Development Of Internationalization Of Higher Education Economics Essay
 
Chapter two provides an overview of the literature in regards to the five aspects of the study of higher education’s internationalization. First, the researcher describes a brief overview of the impact of globalization on the internationalization of higher education and the components of international education. Second, a summary of Southeast Asia region, ASEAN University Network and socio-political structure of Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Third, the literature related to the structure of international higher education and institutional components according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2012-213. The fourth aspect is the review of the existing literatures that indicated factors influencing internationalization. Finally, the fifth aspect summarizes an overview of Systems Theory, SWOT analysis, and Grounded Theory that will be used for the study.
 
The Impact of Globalization on the Development of Internationalization of Higher Education
 
Globalization has an impact on the notion of time and space between countries through the use of technology and telecommunication (Goldsmith, Greenbert, Robertson, & Hu-Chan, 2003). As a result, globalization influences changes in several aspects in society in order to create partnership amidst the diversity. Each country shares the same purpose of creating public policies that will enable the country to meet the universal standard while responding to the specific local needs. One of the most important elements of responding to the trends of globalization is the internationalization of education. The initiative of restructuring knowledge and instruction is based on the three phenomena that have been occurred as a result of globalization; the interdependence of global economy and the shift of human resource, the rapid migration and the change of culture, and the current global environmental issues that generates the ripple effects to the world economy.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
The Interdependence of Global Economy and the Shift of Human Resource
 
The interdependence of global economy has been developed as a result of the advancement of telecommunication and transportation. Consequently, countries are categorized as leading knowledge based, semi-skilled, and unskilled. The rapid change of new technology requires individual to have specialized knowledge and skills that are compatible with the accelerated pace of communication and transaction. Individuals are required to constantly engage in lifelong learning to catch up with the rapid change of technology.
 
The Rapid Migration and the Change of Culture and Demographics of Local Population
 
In addition to the availability of rapid transportation and telecommunication, the government incentives of trade agreement and foreign investment policy perpetuate the distribution of labor that is dependent on the specific skills of an individual rather than the location or ethnicities. For instance, the United States Immigration Department currently provides special immigration quota for highly qualified individuals particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and medicine. Such policy leads to the shift of culture and the demographics of the local population due to the rapid migration. The impact of the rapid migration requires both the local citizens and the recently migrated citizens to acquire sufficient level of cultural diversity and tolerance to prevent conflicts that may arise from the issue of cultural differences. In some cases, both parties reach a compromise and form a hybrid culture.
 
The current global environmental issues the need to be committed as part of the global environmental stewardship
 
The issue of extreme weather conditions as a result of the Greenhouse Effect and global warming has become apparent in the past decades. The rise of the sea level as a result of the melting of the polar ice sheet causes damage not only to the ecosystem but also to the world economy. For instance, the flooding in Thailand in 2012 causes the damage to global economy as the country holds the role as the host of high tech automotive manufacturers outsourced from several countries such as Japan and the United States. The heaviest flooding in 50 years causes the industrial zones in Thailand to cease the operation of over 10,000 factories and lay off over 350,000 workers. The ripple effect of flooding in Thailand affected the production line of over 300 companies in Japan and several elite computer manufacturers in the United States such as Dell and Apple. Such example of environmental issue requires interdisciplinary expertise at the multinational level to find a solution that will sustain the scarce resources and promoting efficiency.
 
The epistemology of globalization is based on the ideology of cosmopolitanism whereby human and ethnic groups should belong to a single community based on the mutual respect, shared norms, and morality. Modern cosmopolitanism approach was introduced by Immanuel Kant in his essay Perpetual Peace written in 1795 to describe how cosmopolitanism functions a defense mechanism to protect people from war through the establishment of universal ethics and morality. Kant described how the use of common resources among human without the notion of territory and ownership would create a cosmopolitan constitution.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
The concept of cosmopolitanism later leads to the development of the political theory of cosmopolitan democracy which explores the application of democracy at global and local level. Cosmopolitan democracy was developed during the end of Cold War with the goal of forming international relations that were based on the foundation of democracy. The tendency to expand democratic structure beyond the nation-state level has been supported by political philosopher Jürgen Habermas. Habermas focused on identifying cognitive areas in which human generates knowledge in order to construct the notion of cosmopolitan democracy in global society. The term knowledge constitutive was utilized to identify the process of discovering knowledge and whether the knowledge claims can be preserved. According to Habermas, cosmopolitanism can be constructed through the area of practical and emancipatory knowledge.
 
Practical Knowledge, according to Habermas, identifies social interactions or communicative among human. Practical knowledge is governed by consensual norms that require mutual agreement between individuals in order to identify the validity of the knowledge. The understanding of meaning rather than seeing empirical evidence is used to determine whether the action is appropriate. Therefore, practical knowledge is an essential element to enable individual to recognize the importance of cosmopolitan democracy through understanding the concepts.
 
In addition to the development of practical knowledge, Habermas also included the concept of emancipatory knowledge to describe the knowledge gained from self-reflections. Emancipatory knowledge is obtained through self-awareness of reasons for his or her own problems. Emancipatory knowledge encourages self-reflection that eventually transforms collective consciousness. Consequently, the concept of cosmopolitan democracy can be introduced, constructed, and transformed into an individual’s consciousness through the approach of emancipatory knowledge.
 
In particular, the concept of globalization revolves around the two main streams of thought; the convergence and divergence approach. Convergence approach emphasizes the homogenization of culture, politics, and economics whereas the divergence approach emphasizes the heterogeneity of globalization’s effect on the local level. Both approaches are intertwined in the process of institutionalizing globalization in contemporary society which can be identified through common themes such as manipulation, localization, interpretation, mediation, and resistance. Nevertheless, the conflicts often arise as a result of the two opposed approaches of globalization that constantly generate the challenges between the homogeneity and its impact on national politics, culture, and economy.
 
Globalization has an impact on almost, if not all, social aspects such as culture, politics, economy, social relations, as well as the structure of higher education. The homogenization of globalization has an impact on higher education institution in regards to the deinstitutionalization of its original policy and values and the challenge of institutionalizing the new ones. Previous studies indicate the relations between globalization and neoliberalism whereby the notion of absolute interdependence between nation-states are emphasized for the absolute gain rather than focusing on the relative gains to other nation-states. As a result, highly legitimated international institutions such as UNESCO, World Bank, IMF, OECD, ASEAN, and EU adopt the role as carriers of global policies and standards. Such institutions have two purposes; 1) to incorporate, translate, legitimate, and disseminate a general and common framework that defines the new context, goals, and imperative in which higher education institutions have to adopt in order to comply with the global age, and 2) to construct and structure a de-localized and global organizational arena that both national higher education policies and institutions have to follow in regards to the daily operation.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
In response to globalization, the structure of higher education institution worldwide changed dramatically in the past twenty years due to the integration of global policies across the nations. Higher education institutions are facing the challenges of the convergence approach of globalization in regards to restructuring and incorporating the new legitimated criterions produced by the global agency such as OECD, EU, and ASEAN. Moreover, information and communication technology also has an impact on the infusion of globalization in higher education institutions. The efficiency of information technology not only improves the internal operation of the institutes but also promotes globalization through constructing distance education and learning system. However, the integration of virtual university element also constitutes a challenge for the traditional universities in regards to the competitions for student enrollment on a global level in addition to the shift in organization cultures. To avoid the decrease in student enrollment, traditional universities often incorporate the global standards whereby the institutes encounter challenges that stem from the shift in organization.
 
In addition to the impact of convergence approach, higher education institutions are also affected by the divergence approach of globalization. The negligence of local responses to the macro-process of globalization often results in the national and local translate and modify the concept of globalization to comply with their cultures, histories, needs, practices, and institutional structures. Consequently, the divergence approach generates the two outcomes; 1) the local has recognize the occurrence of globalization on a daily basis and 2) globalization can be manipulated to meet the local needs and therefore and outcomes are ambiguous and unpredictable depending on the cultural background. The impact of divergence approach results in the challenge of organizational change in higher education institutions whereby the institutions are facing the dilemma of whether to modify the mission of globalization in order to preserve the traditional culture.
 
The components of International Education
 
In response to globalization, the concept of internationalizing higher education institutions was developed. According to Madeleine Green and Christa Olsen (2003), the definition of international education is defined as “…an umbrella term for institutional programs and activities that have a recognizable international dimension, such as student and faculty exchange, study and work abroad, international development activities, foreign language studies, international studies, area studies, joint programs, and comparative studies” (p.1).
 
In order to better operationalize the ambiguous process of implementing internationalization components, the Times High Education World University Rankings 2012-2013 published the criteria of assessment for indicating the performance areas of international universities. Encompassing the broad meaning of international higher education, the criteria of assessment outlines specific areas within the various missions of higher education; teaching, research, citations, industry income, and international outlook. Each of those components falls within one the four broad categories suggested by Clark Kerr as a model of internationalization. The four categories are; knowledge, students, scholars, and the curriculum.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Knowledge
 
Kerr conceptualize the flow of knowledge into three fields of study; 1) the field whereby the knowledge is inherently international such as biology and mathematics, 2) the intracultural fields with some resemblance among nations and/or cultures such as social sciences and humanities, and 3) intranational fields that are specifically applied at the national level such as law and public administration. As a result of globalization, the knowledge in these various fields can be internationally diffused through the two approaches which are teaching/learning and research. The following research indicates current trends in this area.
 
Recently, the mission statements of many liberal education programs emphasize the value of knowledge exchange between international learning institutions. Despite the clear mission of international exchange program, there is a lack of data measuring the institutional progress in the area of knowledge exchange. One of the reasons is because such mission statement is difficult to quantify to what extend the knowledge has been exchanged. Instead, the institutes tend to focus on measuring the environmental factors such as the frequency of the number of students enrollment in foreign language courses, the number of international students and faculty visiting the institutes, or the number of domestic students departing to study abroad in an exchange program.
 
There are several main themes in the literature in regards to the globalization of knowledge. The research outcome has become more positive towards the impact of technology on the internationalization of knowledge. The campus library has integrated technology that provides access to electronic research database at the global level which in turns impacts the advancement of globalization in society. The accessibility of global resources through digital archives enables students and faculty to retrieve current journal articles and research findings from scholar around the world. The shift from institutional-centric access to scholar-centric access has terminated the notion of having particular institutions holding their research findings exclusively for lending/borrowing agreements with only selected institutes. The role of librarians has also evolved to provide guidelines for users to explore global electronic research database.
 
However, the globalization of knowledge also faces several challenges such as language barrier, standardization, compatibility of technology and software, lack of international policies, cultural differences, and affordability of information. However, there are several resources that the institutions can access to eliminate such challenges. For instance, libraries can provide guidelines to users to access online translation program such as Google Translate to accommodate the challenge of language barrier. Organizations such as The International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) sponsored an initiative to help several sub-Saharan African countries purchase online database at discounted rates.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
In addition to the accessibility of electronic global research database, another trend in the internationalization of knowledge that is also influenced by technology is the transnational higher education. The characteristics of transnational higher education vary from offering a dual degree with a partnered foreign institution to establishing additional campus overseas. The use of technology often has an important role in keeping the consistency between the domestic and the oversea campus. The decisions made at the local campus often have an impact on the integration of global knowledge. College and university leadership may affect the decisions in regards to the emphasis of international research opportunities, collaboration with other institutions, utilizing technology to eliminate the barrier of cost and distance, or expanding the access of electronic database at the library.
 
Students
 
The two specific components to evaluate the implementation of institutional internationalization are study abroad and international students. Recent research focuses on reviewing the implementation of study abroad and international student programs and on potential solutions for the current challenges. One of the most common challenges found in the literature is regarding the rigor of study abroad program. Although the number of institutions supporting the study abroad programs in various countries have increase due to the trend of globalization and internationalization, the time spent during the exchange program may vary depending on the students’ value toward studying abroad and the circumstantial factors that occur at the moment.
 
For instance, research showed that the number of American students who spent more than one semester abroad decrease from 18 percent to 10 percent after 1985. Considering the socio-political situation that has occurred in the United States after 1985, the number of American students studying abroad may decrease due to the rapid growth of e-commerce that is originated in the United States. Consequently, American students after 1985 may not recognize the significance of studying abroad as the United States became the most advance in terms of the development of computer engineering. The impact of the US economic growth on studying abroad was also supported by the number of international students enrolling in the US institutions that has been increased since (YEAR). On the other hand, the number of European students studying abroad remains similarly positive. Such statistical evidence may be related to the cultural value of education and studying abroad that has been widely recognized since (YEAR).
 
Most research focusing on improving study abroad tends to provide suggestions that require faculty participation. The effectiveness of studying abroad depends on the collaboration in co-designing meaningful study abroad curriculum between domestic faculty and the foreign host institutions. It is essential for the domestic institution to have faculty members who provide adequate supervision to students prior to, during, and after participating in study abroad program.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Successful study abroad program should first prepare students to become familiar with the culture and the program prior to visiting the foreign host institute. The second stage of supervision should involve the collaboration with the faculty from foreign host institute to monitor the students’ progress. Finally, the third stage of supervision should be implemented upon the students’ return to the domestic institutions with the emphasis of making the students’ experience become meaningful in their reality. The third stage supervision should emphasize on the reflection of students’ experience and how their experience can be applied to their fields of study or their future professions. Moreover, research also suggested that faculty members should be encouraged to attend exchange international teaching program as a way to experience the benefit of study abroad in person. The approach of faculty exchange program was introduced with the purpose of increasing the faculty’s support to internationalize the curriculum.
 
In addition to the initiative to improve the quality of study abroad program, several studies also emphasize on the need for improve academic and social services for the growing population of international students. Several studies showed that international students from regions that share similar level of socio-economic development and culture to the host institutions tend to adjust more easily than those from regions whereby cultural differences and inferior socio-economic development is identified. Moreover, the length of time residing in the visiting country also has an impact on the level of adjustments among international students. Students who have been residing in the host country for more than five years or at least vising the host country from time to time tend to show higher levels of adaptation.
 
Along with the social services to assist international students’ acculturation, the host institution should also provide academic services to promote cross-cultural understanding between domestic and international students. In addition to helping international students and faculty to become familiar with English as a Second Language, the host institutions should also design courses that promote in-depth cultural proficiency for both the domestic and international students such as comparative analysis of Western and Eastern Hemisphere countries, area studies, world philosophy and religion, or the difference of cognitive structures that reflect the characteristics of learning between western and other cultures.
 
Scholars
 
Similar to the two components of the internationalization of student population, the focus of scholars consists of the international education efforts of the domestic scholars and the effort of increasing the number of international visiting scholars. Several studies focus on evaluating the effectiveness of the collaboration between domestic and visiting scholars while others focus on comparing the numbers of domestic scholars teaching abroad in comparison to the number of international scholars visiting the host countries.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
The amount of funding allocated to support international faculty activities also plays an important role in internationalizing institutes. Several countries are facing the challenge of inadequate finding for international faculty activities due to various reasons. For instance, the financial situation in higher education institutes in the United States is beyond the issue of supporting international faculty activities. The rapid growth of for-profit institutions in the United States causes the decrease of funding allocated per institute nationwide. Such impact leads to the shift of organizational culture in the US higher education institute from research-centered whereby the success was revolved around faculty research findings to become more business-centered model whereby increased enrollment, students learning support, and graduation rate defines the success. Consequently, faculty members are involuntarily required to focus more on teaching and mentoring rather than conducting research to further their specialized majors.
 
Curriculum
 
The internationalization of curriculum consists of five components of core structure; language courses, integration of globalization elements to the subject area, area studies, cross-cultural, and global studies. According to NAME, language courses in both English and foreign function as a method for higher education institutes to promote international skills and understanding. Moreover, the integration of globalization elements to the subject areas such as international case studies that are infused to the major discipline provides an opportunity for students to explore the subject from an international perspective. Furthermore, area studies courses provide students in-depth understanding of historical, socio-political, and cultural background of a particular country. In addition, the integration of cross-cultural lenses of the discipline enables students to conduct comparative analysis of the existing events that occur in global society. Finally, a global studies course should be included in the curriculum to increase the students’ understanding of global issues such as war on terrorism, world hunger, minority rights, religion and conflicts, environmental issues, international securities, world trade, and nuclear disarmament.
 
There are several ways to internationalize the curriculum using various course designs. However, following the additive approach of including only two or more international courses in insufficient. Previous studies suggested potential solutions for the lack of success in internationalizing the curriculum. One of the solutions is to involve the faculty and international students as resources to promote the internationalization of the curriculum. Upon effective collaboration, international students can contribute a quite cultural and content point of view to their courses through dialogues and presentations. Ineffective internationalizing of higher education institutes can cause the students to recognize global competency as inert knowledge.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
One of the challenges in global education is beyond having students develop understanding and acquire knowledge about cultural diversity. The ability for students to apply their knowledge in action when facilitating the classroom remains problematic. As Alfred Whitehead (1929) conceptualizes such challenge as “inert knowledge” – knowledge that people can explain when asked to do so but fail to apply into action. Consequently, students may be trained in global education and have a fully understanding when provide explanation nevertheless they are unable to apply the skills on a daily basis.
 
A summary of Southeast Asia, ASEAN, ASEAN University Network, and socio-political structure of Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam
 
Overview of Southeast Asia
 
Southeast Asia is a sub region of Asia consists of two geographic regions; Mainland Asia (known as Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia. The mainland Asian countries are; Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and Peninsular Malaysia. The Maritime Southeast Asian counties are; Brunei, East Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, Philippines, Christmas Island, and Singapore. The distribution of the religions, languages, and people in Southeast Asia is diverse and varies depending on the country. The major religions of Southeast Asia are predominately Islam and Buddhism, as a result of being part of Indianized kingdom prior to the 13th century CE, followed by Christianity. Despite the major religions as indicated by the official regional census, a wide variety of practices and beliefs are found throughout the religion particularly the influence of Hindu and animism.
 
The cultures of Southeast Asia were also influenced by international trade, immigration, and colonization. The long history of trading with China as evidenced by Magellan’s voyage records results in the integration of Chinese culture to the region. Particularly on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is predominantly a combination of Indian and Chinese. On the other hand, the culture of Maritime Southeast Asia is a mix of Arab, Portuguese, Spanish, Chinese, Indian, and the indigenous Malay culture as a result of the geographical features that are feasible for having multiple ports. In addition to the influence from Chinese and Indian culture, Southeast Asia region was also influenced by European cultures as a result of trading and colonization except for Thailand. The Europeans primarily introduced Christianity, science, education systems, and language.
 
Since the spice trade with the European and the Middle East region, Southeast Asia has always been a critical part of the world trading network. While the region’s economy primarily depends on agriculture, manufacturing and services are becoming more dominant. Newly industrialized countries include Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines whereas Singapore and Brunei are classified as developed countries. The rest of the region remains dependent on agriculture with the exception of Vietnam that is significantly making progress in developing its industrial sectors. Southeast Asia region significantly manufactures textiles, electronic goods, heavy industrial products, and automobile, in addition to the presence of oil reserves.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Several countries in Southeast Asia region are experiencing the internal challenges in regards to economic growth, literacy, political insurgency, diversity, and national identity. The decolonization that occurred in 1960s creates several challenges regarding the internal affairs. The rise of nationalism and the mission of forming national identity create the sense of discrimination and coercion among the minorities. Moreover, the political philosophy of Southeast Asia region that is based on the foundation of collectivism tends to reinforce assimilation to the mainstream culture rather than respecting the diversity according to the individualism. As a result, countries in Southeast Asia region often have conflicts that pertain to minority religions and languages, freedom of speech, cultural identity, and political dictatorship.
 
In addition to the internal conflicts, Southeast Asia region also face the challenges to internationalize the country as a result of the impact of globalization. In response to the convergence of globalization as well as the diverse local needs of each country, the countries in Southeast Asia region organize the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to accelerate economic growth, social progress, cultural development among the member countries, protection of regional peace, in addition to provide opportunities for member countries to mediate the diversity peacefully with mutual understanding among all the parties. Moreover, ASEAN also developed ASEAN University Network (AUN) to standardize the policies of higher education institutions with the goal of establishing high quality internationalized institutes among partner countries.
 
Summary of the ASEAN University Network (AUN)
 
The ASEAN University Network (AUN) was founded in November 1995 by ASEAN member countries. The AUN consists from twenty seven universities from the ten ASEAN countries; Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Board of Trustees of AUN is elected from the participating universities with the mission of formulating standardized policies, approving project proposal, allocating budget, and implementing coordinated activities. The financial resources of the AUN are from either the cost sharing between the ASEAN member countries or the external dialogues partner of ASEN as the following; Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia, and the United States.
 
During the early years of establishment from 1995 to 1999, the AUN’s focus was mainly on the exchange of knowledge and experience among the students and faculty of ASEAN member countries. As from 1999, the collaborative task force has shifted toward the elements of internationalization including the components such as; joint curriculum development, coorperation in information technology, and the establishment of sub-partnerships that includes not only ASEAN member countries but also the dialogue partners.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
The Republic of Singapore
 
The Republic of Singapore is an island country made up of sixty three islands located between Malaysia and Indonesia. The country earned its recognition worldwide since hosting a trading post of the East India Company in 1819. The British obtained sovereignty over the island in ——824 and Singapore became part of the British Straits Settlements in 1826. Singapore gained its independence during World War II when the country was occupied by the Japanese. Since the independence, Singapore has had dramatic increase in wealth and later become one of the four Asian Tigers (COUNTRIES) in addition to be the world’s fourth leading financial centers. The economy of Singapore depends primarily on exports and refining imported goods, as a result of having one of the five demanding ports in the world, which constituted of 26% of Singapore’s GDP in 2005. In regards to purchasing capacity, Singapore has the third highest income per capita in the world.
 
In regards to the languages and cultures, Singapore consists of diverse cultures, languages, and religions. Consequently, the country does not recognize any particular cultures as the norms of society. Since the independence from the United Kingdom in 1963, most Singaporean citizens were unskilled immigrants from China, Malaysia, and India. The process of establishing a Singaporean identity and culture occurred after the independence by the former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kwan Yew and Goh, Chok Tong. Nevertheless, the diversity remains with the justification from both the Prime Ministers that Singapore does not comply with the traditional description of a nation.
 
The Political system of Singapore is a unitary multiparty parliamentary republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The country has been governed by the People’s Action Party since its election victory in 1959. The party follows the basis of a strong state and prioritizing individual rights such as freedom of speech. Singapore is rated one of the least corrupted countries in the world according to Transparency International (SOURCE). The legal system of Singapore is based on English Common Law with substantial local differences.
 
The foreign policy of Singapore mainly focuses on maintaining a secure environment in Southeast Asia as well as the surrounding territories. As one of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is a strong supporter of the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement. Despite the strong relations with other ASEAN member countries, the border issues with other ASEAN members such as Malaysia and Indonesia remain apparent particularly the issue of the delivery of fresh water and airspace between the Arm Forces. In addition to supporting ASEAN Free Trade Agreement, The National University Singapore is also part of the ASEAN University Network to promote the high standards and establish partnerships with other outstanding higher education institutes among ASEAN countries as well as other dialogue countries.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Education for primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels are centralized by the Ministry of Education using English as official language of instruction in all public institutes. LOOK FOR SINGAPORE HIGHER ED
 
Thailand
 
Thailand is located in the center of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. The country is a constitutional monarchy headed by the ninth king of the House of Chakri who have reigned since 1946. The king of Thailand is titled Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, the Upholder of the Buddhist religion, and the Defender of all Faiths. The majority of the Thai population is ethnically Thai (75%), Chinese (14%), and ethnically Malay (3%). The country’s official language is Thai using Thai alphabet for the writing system. Buddhism is the primary religion which is practiced by around 95% of the population. Muslims are second largest religious groups in Thailand at 4.6% mainly practiced by ethnic Thai and Malay in the southern Thailand and Christians represent 0.7% of the population. Similar to other countries in Southeast Asia region, the Thai population also includes other regional beliefs originating from Animism, Taoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and ancestor worship. Moreover, seniority is also an important concept in Thai culture as a result of Confucianism influence. The influence of international culture in Thailand occurred in a mediated manner as the country was never colonized.
 
Thailand is an emerging economy and considered to be a newly industrialized country. The GDP of Thailand classifies as the second largest economy in Southeast Asia after Indonesia. Moreover, Thailand ranks mid-way in the wealth spread in Southeast Asia as the fourth richest nation after Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia. However, the wealth distribution in Thailand is uneven between urban and rural area. The economic growth rate was rapid from 1985 to 1996. The country experienced economic crisis in 1997 and started to recover in 1999 due to strong exports. The Thai government kept the currency weak on purpose to attract foreign investors in addition to establishing multiple projects to increase domestic employment and spending. The major exports in Thailand include rice, textiles, foot wear, fishery products, rubber, jewelry, cars, computers, and electrical appliances. Moreover, substantial industries in Thailand include electric appliances, components, computer parts, cars, and tourism.
 
The foreign relations in Thailand are centralized by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The country participates fully in international and regional organizations. Thailand has taken an increasingly active international role to promote free trade agreements, assist the development of the disadvantaged neighbor countries in the Sub-Mekong region such as Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, and to contribute troops for peacekeeping effort. The country is also an active member of AEAN and has developed close partnerships with other ASEAN countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. In addition to be part of ASEAN member countries, Thailand also appointed Chulalongkorn University to be part of the ASEAN University Network.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
In regards to education, the school system in Thailand is centralized under the authority of Minister of Education. Education is compulsory up to the age of 14 and the government provides free education up to the age of 17. Although the literacy level of Thailand is ranked HIGH (ACCORDING TO?), teaching relies mainly on rote memorization rather than critical thinking methodology as a result of following the Confucianism philosophy of learning. Another challenge of education in Thailand includes the low level of English proficiency in addition to the rapid change of national entrance examination requirements for acceptance in higher education institutions.
 
Vietnam
 
Vietnam is the easternmost country in Southeast Asia next to the border of China. The Vietnamese as part of Imperial China until 938 AD until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French from the mid nineteenth century until 1954. The official language of Vietnam is Vietnamese spoken by the majority of the population. Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters and later developed their own set of characters based on the use of the Roman alphabets beginning in the 13th century. The French language is spoken by some education Vietnamese as a second language, particularly among the older generation. In regards to regions, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism have been dominant religions influenced by the geographical location that is next to China. However, the vast majority of Vietnamese people practice ancestor worship in the form of minority faiths. The Culture of Vietnam was influenced by Chinese philosophy such as Confucianism and Taoism. The influence of cultures of the immigrant Chinese minorities such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, and Hainan culture is also visible. Moreover, the influence of Western culture, particularly France and the United States, has also become evident in Vietnam in recent centuries.
 
During the early post-colonial period, Vietnam was politically divided into North and South Vietnam due to the conflict between communist and democratic government. With heavy foreign intervention, South Vietnam was finally defeated in 1975. The country was unified under a Communist government with political isolation and impoverishment. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a single-party state which established the current state constitution in addition to hold the central role of the Communist Party of Vietnam in all structure of government, politics, and society. Although the state officially committed to socialism according to its constitution, the economic policies of Vietnam have increasingly shifted to capitalist.
 
The post-war economy of Vietnam mainly focuses on revitalizing agriculture and industrializing the nation. The government implements the policy that pertains to the collectivization of farms, factories, and economic capital. Consequently, a large number of populations were able to obtain employment through the government programs. Nevertheless, Vietnam’s economy is affected by inefficiency and corruption of state programs, poor quality and underproduction, and restrictions on economic activity. Moreover, Vietnam was also affected by the post-war trade embargo instituted by the United States and most countries in Europe in addition to the loss of main trading partners such as the Soviet Union and its satellites since the end of Cold War in the late 1980s.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
In 1986, the government of Vietnam introduced free market economic reforms encouraging private ownership in industries, commerce, and agriculture. As a result, Vietnam has become one of the world’s fastest growing economies despite the event of global recession in the late 2000s. The rapid of national economy is influenced by manufacturing, information technology, and high-tech industries. Deep poverty as defined by the percentage of the population living on less than one dollar per day as declined significantly in Vietnam. The poverty rate of Vietnam is now less than the surrounded Asian countries such as China, India, and the Philippines.
 
Since early 2000s, Vietnam has applied a two-track approach to open some sectors of the economy to international markets while reserving others to the domestic level. Vietnam has become one of Asia’s most open economies in addition to have chief trading partners such as China, Japan, Australia, the ASEAN member countries, the United States, and Western Europe. In response to the rapid economic growth, a large number of public schools and universities have been organized across the country to increase the national literacy rate. Vietnam has a government-centralized network of schools, colleges, and universities, in addition to a growing number of private and partially privatized institutions. Although Vietnam’s education system is under a reform policy launched by the government, several limitations can be identified. The issue of disadvantaged student population remains significant as the access to education is not fully subsidized by the government. However, the number of school enrollment in Vietnam is among the highest in the world (SOURCE). Moreover, the number of colleges and universities increases rapidly in the 2000s, from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005.
 
To promote the internationalization of higher education in addition to be part of collaborative members of international trading system, Vietnam became part of the ASEAN University Network nominating Vietnam National University as a representative to the network.
 
Literature Review of Factors Influencing Internationalization
 
Although the socio-political trend of globalization have an impact on internationalizing higher education institutes, the effectiveness of the implementation occur at the institutional level. The components of institutional structure pertaining to the internationalization are leadership, mission, and funding.
 
Leadership
 
The effectiveness of leadership has an impact on the success of internationalizing the institutes in regards to the structure, human resource, politics, and organizational culture. The potential outcomes of effective leadership support have been addressed in multiple studies. Designing an appropriate organizational structure for internationalization is essential for the sustainability of the program implementation. Upon the appropriate division of resources and the identification of structural flaws, the institutes are able to increase efficiency and enhance the performance though restructuring the institution. Bolman and Deal (YEAR) suggested various organizational models that the administrators can adopt to implement internationalization programs such as centralized, dual authority, simple hierarchy, circle network, and all channel network. The successful leadership support also reflects on the inclusion of procedures, statements, and goals that emphasize the internationalization in the official policies.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Within the area of higher education, the influence of leadership is often time limited to the president or department head whose roles are not solely involved with research and instruction. Consequently, the visibility of the new policy implemented may not be apparent due to the lack of commitment with the faculty. NAME suggested that highly qualified organization such as higher education institutes should follow the model of all channel networks to benefit from the expertise of faculty members from various fields. According to _____, lateral structure is considered to be a more appropriate model for higher education institutes as it complies with the idea of respecting faculty autonomy and academic freedom. By involving the faculty with the process of designing appropriate structure, it is more likely that the institute will be able to obtain the level of commitment in addition to generating innovative approaches suggested by the faculty.
 
Another outcome of effective leadership pertains to the human resource frame which involves the balance between the level of performance and the job satisfaction among faculty and staff. The impact of globalization plays an important role on the dynamic of person-organization relationship. The rapid change of organizational structure requires leader to be aware of the dilemma of change cynicism due to the loss of expertise and the increase of workload. The essential leadership task is to seek appropriate approach that will promote the adaptability and commitment while maintain the loyalty of the staff and faculty.
 
Moreover, effective leadership involves beyond increasing the performance among the staff and faculty. The issues of limited resources need to be taken into consideration in order to provide a realistic and feasible accommodation to staff and faculty during the period of transition. Leadership for human resource involves the visibility and accessibility of the leaders, the ability to communicate their strong belief in people, and the charismatic traits of the leader to empower others. NAME suggested one of the methods of promoting commitment among the staff and faculty is by keeping them involved with the process of restructuring the organization. In the case of internationalizing the institutes, the administrators should involve faculty members to exchange information, needs, and perceptions toward the restructuring of organization to the international model.
 
The ability to choose appropriate administrative structure to implement the internationalization components is essential as well as controversial. Depending on the organizational characteristics, administrators need to decide whether to centralize the internationalization into a single department that serves the entire institutes or to distribute the internationalization as a sub-unit of each department. Both decisions have different aspects of advantages and disadvantages. The research showed that the centralized international programs and activities tend to reinforce each other and comply with the institution’s structure and priorities. On the other hand, the research also showed that decentralized international programs and activities that are customized by the department tend to be more meaningful to the field of study although the outcomes of each department may vary depending on the value of the major.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Another component of effective leadership involves the ability to resolve the political dilemma of developing the agenda to allocate the scarce resource in an efficient manner. Moreover, the administrators also need to be familiar with the organizational environment in order to manage relationships between the faculty who support the program as well as those who oppose. Consequently, effective leadership requires administrators to have expertise in negotiation and bargaining to meet the interests of both parties. In order to promote coalition among the faculty in addition to preventing the conflict, the administrators need to identify the appropriate distribution of power as well as designing anticipated counterstrategies for the stakeholders who are more likely to resist. The three areas of politics that have an impact on the program implementation include institutional policy, interdepartmental politics, and intradepartmental politics.
 
Finally, effective leadership also involves creating and maintaining the culture of internationalization. Instead of creating a unique model, there are several models of organizational structure that the administrators can adopt to promote the culture of internationalization. Although it is more likely that the characteristics of the internationalization will be similar based on the process of isomorphism, it is essential for the administrators to acquire effective leadership skills that will increase the support from the staff and faculty when the institute is moving toward the isomorphic culture of internationalization. Lemert introduced the process of isomorphism that causes organizations share several characters that are similar to one another. Isomorphism is divided into three categories; coercive, mimetic, and normative. Coercive model occurs when different organizations become more similar in response to outside pressure or requirements. On the other hand, mimetic model refers to the organizational structure adopted from the other organization that has proven to be effective. Finally, normative model occurs when professionals bring shared ideas, values, and norms from their training to the work place. Regardless of the type of isomorphism adopted by the institute, it is essential for the administrators to produce symbols that represent the new culture as well as negotiate its meanings and interpretation with the staff and faculty members to avoid resistance
 
Mission
 
The mission of higher education institutes functions as part of an institution strategy to define its unique characteristics among the competitive institutes. Higher education institute’s mission includes the elements of the demographics of the students, geographic areas to be served, the specification of programs and services, and the institutional characteristics that are more beneficial to the stakeholders compared to other institutes. Consequently, it is essential for the institutes to address and/or review the institution’s missing statement to confirm the clarity of the meaning to the stakeholders. In the case of international institutions, the global perspectives tend to be emphasized and integrated in all elements included in the mission. Several studies support the idea of how the level of institutional commitment to the internationalization can be measured through the how the elements of internationalization are addressed in the mission.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
In a comparative study of international programs between the small and larger institutions, the result showed that the mission of integrating international programs in larger institutions tend to be more tailored to the fields of study whereas the smaller institutes tend to design the international programs that are more interdisciplinary. Consequently, students from larger institutes are able to establish direct relationship between the international experience and the major programs. One of the factors that enable larger institutes to design international components that aligned with the subject areas is due to the sufficient number of student population in each specialization. Certainly, smaller institutes have to design international programs with interdisciplinary focus to obtain the sufficient number of the students. Therefore, the size of the institute has an impact on the scope of the mission that pertains to the internationalization of the program.
 
Another study also suggested that the inclusion of internationalization in institutional mission should not be overemphasized to the extent that neglects the elements of local needs. Although the purpose of higher education institutes involves preparing the students for the emerging trend of globalization, the foundation of higher education institutes also includes providing services to local community. The lack of connection between the program and local implementation will have an impact on the students’ perceiving the mission of internationalization as unrealistic. The mission of internationalization should not overlook the aspects of social justice and human rights in global society. Oftentimes, the mission of the institutes overemphasized the positive elements of globalization such as the advancement of technology and the collaboration of international trade agreement while neglecting the issue of social justice and political insurgency.
 
Funding
 
Despite the economic downturns that occur occasionally across the countries, the student mobility and the growth of international higher education demand are scarcely affected. The global data sets such as UNESCO, OECD, and IDP predict that international higher education demand in 2015 will increase by 150 percent since 2000 as a result of emerging economy between nations. Consequently, the increase of competition in regards to the number of student enrollment will require international higher education institutes to seek innovative policy implementations that will maximize the effectiveness while minimizing the use of limited resources. In response to the challenge of financial constraint in higher education institute as well as national economic downturn, the structure of internationalization can be modified to meet the students’ and institutes’ financial feasibility. However, structural change in internationalization may have an impact on the rigor of the program as the following;
 
Although the economic recession does not affect the demand of pursuing international education, higher education institutions have to find a compromised program structure that will also satisfy the economic needs of the students. To accomplish such mission, international higher education institutes may omit certain elements of the program that may prolong the time to graduate in addition to increase the expense. For instance, the components such as study abroad and language courses that require more time and expense from the students to gain expertise may be modified to the superficial level in order to avoid delaying time to degree. Such approach may raise the question of whether the internationalization of the curriculum in a time and cost efficient manner will be effective for the students.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Moreover, the impact of economic recession also has an impact on institutional choice of engaging internationalization. To improve efficiency in budget allocation, higher education institutes need to prioritize their core missions. Therefore, higher education institutes needs to be cautious not to perceive the internationalization as another additional element to the institutes in order to avoid being eliminated due to the budget limitation. To avoid the exclusion of internationalization, higher education institutes need to integrate the international content into the academic core across departments instead of having the international department as a centralized unit in the institute. The decentralization approach can generate a rich international content as the international curriculum is tailored to the specific subject area. On the other hand, the integration of international content in certain departments may not be as affective depending on the values toward internationalization that may vary in each department.
 
In response to numerous challenges including budgets, a complete review of the academic curricula, academic core, and governance often occur in a cyclical pattern. However, the rapid change in innovative knowledge as a result of globalization often requires higher education institutes to reduce cycle time for curricular revision. Consequently, the reduction of cyclical revision raises an issue of whether institutional governance system is responsive to such rapid change in internationalization. Moreover, the rapid cyclical revision of international curricular in the event of limited budget may discourage the institutes from implementing the latest innovations as there is an uncertainty of having to revise in the near future due to the ongoing change.
 
As a result, there is a possibility that the elements of internationalization during the limited budget may become deemphasized due to the financial burdens. Another response to implementing internationalization with limited budget is to reduce the duplications of similar programs across institutions or to eliminate low enrollment program in order to concentrate the allocation of budget in a more efficient manner. To resolve the issue of limited budget, international higher education institutes seek to establish institutional partnerships with both domestic and international to offer the programs.
 
Systems Theory, SWOT Analysis, and Grounded Theory
 
To analyze an institution, a researcher needs to conduct a careful investigation of the situation, definition of the problem, and searcher for solution strategies. Using systems theory, the researcher can perceive the institution as a rational and hierarchical system with differentiated work groups and division of labor among individuals. Systems theory is a concept that originated from biology, economics, and engineering which explores principles and laws that can be generalized across various systems. To analyze the structure of an institution, systems theory has been commonly applied for both theoretical and practical purposes. The theory of systems theory explains how the larger system of an institution consists of the inter-relationships and interdependence of sub-systems. All the sub-systems share the same function of moving toward equilibrium within the larger system of an institution.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment). Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment).Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment).#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#

Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment).Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment).

Three major systems can be applied to analyze institution; rational, natural, and open systems. The first two systems are predominantly applied to decrease the uncertainty within an institution with the purpose of increasing the efficiency of the system. These two systems are often utilized to studying internal functions such as managerial strategies and leadership style. However, modern institutions are affected by external environment such as the industry and consumers. Consequently, classifying an institution as an open system a more effective approach to understand how an organization continuously exchange energy such as information and other resources with the environment by identifying input, throughput, and output. Input refers to the energy imported from the environment (i.e. leadership, funding, mission), throughput refers to the process by which the system responds to this energy, and output refers to the product exported to the environment as a result of the input and throughput (i.e. percentage of international student enrollment).#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
 
Therefore, input has the capacity to alert the system to the need for change, throughput the capacity to change the system from within an organization through internal reaction toward the environmental circumstances, and output the capacity to alter the environment in order to construct the system’s effective functioning. However, input of each institution may not always be the same characteristics. The concept of “equifinality” whereby a system can reach the same goal through the application of alternative approaches was included to justify how each institution may have different inputs affecting their internationalization efforts. Thus, identifying the more specific input factors and their overall impact will part of the outcomes of the study.
 
In addition to the identification of input, throughput, and output, systems may also be characterized by their degree of negentropy versus entropy. Negentropy is the tendency of a living system to import more energy than export which allows the system to expand and develop. On the other hand, the condition of entropy characterizes how the system exports more energy than it maintains which results in the loss of vitality and organizational decay. To sustain the system operations, the use of feedback that constantly informs the system of its status and functioning can be used as an opportunity to take corrective action.
 
The conception of internationalizing a university requires more than successfully implementing an isolated component of the institution. Thus, the investigation of internationalization’s factor influencing the implementation will focus on analyzing each of the various components while simultaneously viewing them as a part of a systemic transformation. As a result, a comprehensive model of influential factors in institutional internationalization will be developed with the application of SWOT analysis to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in each institute.
 
SWOT analysis is a structured planning method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats involved in an institution. The analysis involves identifying the objective of the institute for the purpose of isolating the internal and external factors that contribute or constrain to the achievement of that objective. Once the SWOT analysis is performed, the institute can set achievable objectives that are appropriate to the needs of the institution. The implementation of SWOT analysis can be as simple as fill in the conventional checklists or more sophisticated depending on the institution. Despite the convenience of using conventional SWOT checklist to assess the institution, the findings tend to yield predominantly to the surface examination of the institution. To alleviate obtaining the superficial outcome, the application of resource-based SWOT analysis is suggested to focus on causal issues that enable the institute to obtain more perceptive, reliable, and actionable insights.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#