GLOBAL EMPLOYMENT TRENDS for WOMEN
BRIEF, March 2007
1. Overview
During the 1980s and 1990s women’s participation in labour markets worldwide grewsubstantially. This gave rise to expectations that increased opportunities and economic autonomyfor women would bring 留學(xué)生dissertation網(wǎng)greater gender equality. To help determine the extent to which such hopesare being realized, it is necessary to analyse women’s labour market trends in more detail. To this
end, the Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 focuses on whether the tendency towardincreased participation has continued more recently and whether women have found enough decentand productive jobs to really enable them to use their potential in the labour market and achieveeconomic independence.
The approach is based on updates and analysis of a number of major labour market indicators.
These include: labour force participation; unemployment; sector and status of employment;wages/earnings; and education and skills. Taken together, they show whether women who want towork actually do so, whether women find it harder to get a job than men, differences in the type ofwork done by women and men and equality of treatment in areas ranging from pay to education andtraining.
Main findings are:
· In absolute numbers, more women than ever before are participating in labour marketsworldwide. They are either in work or actively looking for a job.
· This overall figure only tells part of the story, however. During the past ten years, thelabour force participation rate (the share of working-age women who work or areseeking work) stopped growing, with many regions registering declines. This reversalis notable, even though it partially reflects greater participation of young women ineducation.
· More women than ever before are actually in work1. The female share of totalemployment stayed almost unchanged at 40 percent in 2006 (from 39.7 per cent 10years ago).
· At the same time, more women than ever before are unemployed, with the rate of
women’s unemployment (6.6 per cent) higher than that of men (6.1 per cent).
· Women are more likely to work in low productivity jobs in agriculture and services.
Women’s share in industrial employment is much smaller than men’s and has
decreased over the last ten years.
· The poorer the region, the greater the likelihood that women work as unpaid
contributing family members2 or low-income own-account workers. Female
1 The expression “in work” summarizes all people employed according to the ILO definition, which includes selfemployed,
employed, employers as well as unpaid family members. The words “employed” and “in work” are used as
synonyms in this GET for Women Brief 2007.
ISBN 978-92-2-120136-6
2 Global Employment Trends for Women#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
contributing family workers, in particular, are not likely to be economically
independent.
· The step from unpaid contributing family worker or low-paid own-account worker towage and salaried employment is a major step toward freedom and self-determinationfor many women. The share of women in wage and salaried work grew during the pastten years from 42.9 per cent in 1996 to 47.9 per cent in 2006. However, especially inthe world’s poorest regions, this share is still smaller for women than for men,
· There is evidence that wage gaps persist. Throughout most regions and manyoccupations women get less money for the same job. But there is also some evidencethat globalization can help close the wage gap for some occupations.
· Young women are more likely to be able to read and write than 10 years ago. Butthere is still a gap between female and male education levels. And there isconsiderable doubt that women get the same chances as men to develop their skillsthroughout their working lives.
These trends show that despite some progress, there is no cause for complacency. Policies toenhance women’s chances to participate equally in labour markets are starting to pay off, but thepace with which gaps are closing is very slow. As a result, women are more likely than men tobecome discouraged and give up hope of being economically active. And for women who work,
there is a greater likelihood to be among the working poor – they work but they do not earn enoughto lift themselves and their families out of poverty. Given finally the persisting lack of socioeconomicempowerment for women and unequal distribution of household responsibilities, thereremains some way to go to achieve equality between men and women.
At a time when the world increasingly realizes that decent and productive work is the onlysustainable way out of poverty, analyzing women’s role in the world of work is particularlyimportant. Progress on full, productive and decent employment, a new target within the MillenniumDevelopment Goals, will only be possible if the specific needs for women in labour markets are
addressed.3
2. Female participation in labour markets
The growing proportion of women in the labour force and narrowing gap between male andfemale participation rates has been one of the most striking labour market trends of recent times.
During the past ten years, however, a more nuanced picture has emerged regarding femaleparticipation, with considerable differences among age groups and regions.
Overall, there have never before been so many economically active women. The total femalelabour force, which is made up of both employed and unemployed women, was 1.2 billion in 2006,up from 1.1 billion in 1996 (see table 1). The gap between female and male labour forceparticipation rates (the labour force as a share of working age population) diminished somewhatduring the 10-year period. Whereas ten years ago there were 66 active women per 100 active men,in 2006 this number was still at almost the same level, with 67 women per 100 men (see table 2). Atthe same time, the female labour force participation rate decreased slightly to 52.4 per cent from53.0 per cent in 1996. However, rather than this being a sign of stagnation, it is the result of twopositive counterbalancing trends. As education among young women spreads more widely, youngwomen’s labour force participation decreases. At the same time, the participation rate for adultwomen was slightly higher in 2006 than ten years earlier.Meanwhile, trends at the regional level vary noticeably. Increases in women’s economicactivity were particularly high in Latin America, Middle East and North Africa, and Developed2 The expressions “unpaid contributing family workers”, “unpaid contributing family members”, “contributing familyworkers” and “contributing family members” are used as synonyms.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
3 This brief is a condensed version of the ILO working paper “Global Employment Trends for Women 2007”,forthcoming 2007.
3 Global Employment Trends for Women
Economies and the EU. This led in all three cases to a smaller gap between male and female labourforce participation rates. On the other hand, there are also regions where the gap widened. In sub-Saharan Africa the gap was 0.3 percentage points larger in 2006 than 10 years earlier and in East
Asia it increased by almost 1 percentage point (see figure 1).
Figure 1
Labour force participation rates, by sex and region, 1996 and 2006
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe (non-
EU) and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and the
Pacific
South Asia Latin
America and
the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
1996 Male 2006 Male 1996 Female 2006 Female
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
However, regardless of these regional variations, the difference between male and female
economic activity remains conspicuous throughout the world. In the Developed Economies and EU,
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS4 and in East Asia, about 80 women per 100 men are
economically active. In sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio is 75 women per 100 men, in South East Asia
and the Pacific it is 73 to 100 and in Latin America and the Caribbean, 69 to 100. The biggest gaps
are found in South Asia, with 42 to 100, and Middle East and North Africa, with 37 to 100 (see
table 2).
Taken on their own, rising or high labour force participation rates do not necessarily mean
that labour markets are developing positively for women. The labour force participation rate does
not provide an insight into the likelihood of being employed, nor does it indicate the quality of jobs.
It also does not show how many people are participating in education, which is a good reason to be
out of the labour force. The following sections, therefore, provide a more detailed analysis of the
employment situation for women and their conditions of work.
3. Unemployment among women
In 2006, women globally still had a higher likelihood of being unemployed compared withmen. The female unemployment rate stood at 6.6 per cent, compared to a male rate of 6.1 per cent(see figure 2a). In addition, women’s unemployment rate rose over the ten-year period from 6.3 percent in 1996. In total 81.8 million women who were willing to work and actively looking for workwere without a job. This was up 22.7 per cent from 10 years earlier.The difficulty of finding work is even more pronounced for young women (aged 15 to 24
years), with 35.6 million young women seeking an employment opportunity in 2006. Youthunemployment rates, both male and female, are higher than adult unemployment rates in all regions.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
In five, the regional female youth unemployment rate exceeds that of men. This is not the case in
East Asia, Developed Economies and EU and sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 2b).5
4 Given that this Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 analyses the period until 2006 Bulgaria andRomania were kept in this region despite the fact that since January 2007 they are new EU member states.
5 For more details see Global Employment Trends for Youth 2006, http://www.ilo.org/trends.
4 Global Employment Trends for Women
Figure 2a
World and regional unemployment rates, by sex, 2006
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
World Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe
(non-EU)
and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and
the Pacific
South Asia Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
Unemployment rate (%)
Female
Male
Figure 2b
World and regional Female youth unemployment rates, by sex, 2006
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
World Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe
(non-EU)
and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and
the Pacific
South Asia Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
Unemployment rate (%)
Female
Male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Unemployment indicators provide a limited picture of the condition of labour markets. For aclearer image, they should be viewed in conjunction with employment-to-population ratios, data onemployment by status and sector as well as wage and earning indicators. Ideally they should also beinterpreted together with working poor numbers, as these give a good indication of whether the jobs
created are of decent enough quality to give women a chance to work themselves and their familiesout of poverty. However, as discussed in box 1, it is not yet possible to estimate women’s working
poverty at a regional level. Finally, unemployment estimates exclude people who want to work butmay not actively “seek” work because they feel there is none available, have restricted labour
5 Global Employment Trends for Women
mobility or face discrimination or structural, social or cultural barriers. These are known asdiscouraged workers. Although there is a dearth of data on discouraged workers, a review of data
available for industrialized economies revealed that females made up approximately two-thirds ofdiscouraged workers in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norwayand Portugal, with the female share of total discouraged workers near 90 per cent in Italy andSwitzerland.6 Given that women face higher unemployment rates, have far fewer opportunities in#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
labour markets than men and often face social barriers to enter labour markets, it is very likely thatdiscouragement among women is higher than among men in most countries in the developing
world.
Box 1
Women and poverty
Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. Poor people can suffer from material deprivation, lack of
money, dependency on benefits, social exclusion or inequality. Despite these many aspects, the most common
measurements of poverty focus on monetary income. Usually poverty it is measured as the share of people in a
country living below US$1 or US$2 a day. The main sources for poverty statistics are income and expenditure
data collected through national household surveys. Unfortunately such information is inadequate for measuring
gender differences, because it concerns entire households rather than individuals. In addition, results give a
snapshot of household poverty at a particular moment and do not capture changes over time. As a result,
poverty data is not disaggregated by sex, making it impossible to estimate poverty among women that work.
However, the statistical and anecdotal evidence that does exist has lead to a growing perception that poverty is
becoming feminized, with women accounting for an increasing proportion of the world’s poor and working
poor. The findings of this report support this view. As long as there are inequalities in labour markets, women
will find it harder than men to escape poverty.
Sources: Spicker, Paul, “The idea of poverty”, Bristol, 2007; UNIFEM, ”Report on “Progress of the World’s Women, 2005”, New York,
2005, http://www.un-ngls.org/women-2005.pdf; UNIFEM, “The World’s Women 2005: Progress in Statistics”, New York, 2005,
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/wwpub.htm
A closer look at the employment situation for women is also not encouraging. Employmentto-
population ratios – which indicate how efficiently economies make use of the productive
potential of their working-age population – are in all regions of the world much lower for women
than for men (see table 3). Only half of working-age women (15+) actually work. For men, the
proportion is more than seven out of ten. The difference is most notable in the Middle East and
North Africa, where only slightly more than two out of every ten working-age women are
employed, compared to seven out of ten for men. The situation is only slightly better in South Asia.
The gap between female and male employment-to-population ratios decreased for the world as a
whole over the past decade. However, in East Asia it widened and in sub-Saharan Africa it was
unchanged.
While not all women of working age may wish to work, the existence of significant
unemployment indicates that there are many women who want a job but are unable to find one. Part#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
of the employment gaps that remain in industrialized economies may be attributed to the fact that
some women choose to stay at home because they can afford not to enter the labour market. But in
other regions of the world, it is more likely that women would work if there were opportunities for
them to do so. Attracting more women into the labour force also requires as a first step equal access
to education and equal opportunities in gaining the skills necessary to compete in the labour market.
As is discussed in box 2, this equality in education is still far out of reach in most regions.
6 OECD, Employment Outlook, Paris, 2003.
6 Global Employment Trends for Women
Box 2
Women and education
Education is a basic right. It is essential for development, as education can help people to find solutions to
their problems and can provide new opportunities. It opens chances to participate in labour markets or to look for
more decent employment opportunities. Still, almost 800 million adults have not had the opportunity to learn
how to read and write, about two third of whom are women. In addition, 60 percent of school drop-outs are girls,
as they often have to leave school at early ages to help in households or to work. Moreover, there are often
cultural restrictions that prevent girls from finishing even basic education, severely limiting their chances to
determine their own future.
The lowest literacy rates for women can be found in South and West Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the
Arab States. Even though these have increased in recent times, their comparatively low levels reflect the
disadvantages faced by women in these regions.
Unfortunately basic education does not always translate into better employment opportunities. This is
why it is important for women to continue to gain knowledge and skills beyond those acquired during youth. An
underlying reason for the discrepancy in decent work opportunities between adult men and women could well be
the lack of lifelong learning opportunities for many women.
Literacy rates* by region (2000-2004)
South and West Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Latin America and the
Caribbean
East Asia and the
Pacific
Central and Eastern
Europe
Developed Countries
Central Asia
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
literacy rates (%)
male 15+
female 15+
male (15-24)
female (15-24)
*Traditionally, UNESCO has defined literacy as ‘a person’s ability to read and write, with understanding, a simple statement about one’s
everyday life’. The grouping of countries into regions is taken as provided by UNESCO and differs slightly from the groupings used in this
publication.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, September 2006, http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=5020_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
7 Global Employment Trends for Women
4. Women’s working conditions
There is no single agreed-upon indicator for assessing the conditions of decent and productive
employment.7 However, some insights can be gained by analyzing three indicators: employment by
sector; status of employment (see box 5); and wages/earnings.
4.1 Sectors of employment
For the first time in 2005 agriculture was no longer the main sector of employment for
women, and this trend continued in 2006. The service sector now provides most jobs for women.
Out of the total number of employed women in 2006, 40.4 per cent worked in agriculture and 42.4
per cent in services. Meanwhile, 17.2 per cent of all women working were in the industry. (The
comparable male rates were 37.5 per cent in agriculture, 38.4 per cent in services and 24 per cent in
industry). (See figure 3 and table 4).
Figure 3
Female and male sectoral employment shares
as percentage of total employment, 1996-2006
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
(%)
Agriculture female Industry female Services female
Agriculture male Industry male Services male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Women have a higher share of agricultural employment than men in East Asia, South Asia,
sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa. In the other regions, it is usually the
poorer countries that show a higher share of female employment in agriculture. Box 3 discusses the
special challenges women face when working in this sector.
In all regions, women’s share of employment in industry is lower than that of men. The
difference is particularly marked in the Developed Economies and EU, where only 12.4 per cent of
women work in this sector compared to 33.6 per cent of men. Within developing regions, the
differences are considerable in Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS as well as in Middle
East and North Africa and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. Within the
Asian regions, shares are more balanced between men and women. (See table 4).
The service sector has overtaken agriculture for women’s employment in 4 out of the 8
regions: Developed Economies and EU; Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS; Latin
7 A compelling and comprehensive collection of articles that highlight good practices regarding working conditions for
women and gender equality in the world of work can be found in: ILO, “Gender Equality Around the World”, Articles
from World of Work Magazine, 1999-2006, March 2007.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inf/event/women/2007/gender_equality.pdf
8 Global Employment Trends for Women
America; and Middle East and North Africa. On the other hand, in East Asia, South Asia and sub-#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
Saharan Africa agriculture is by far the most important sector of women’s employment. Within
services, women are still concentrated in areas traditionally associated with their gender roles,
particularly in community, social and personal services. Men dominate the better-paid jobs in
financial and business services and real estate.8
Box 3
Women and agriculture
Women agricultural workers are responsible for half of the world’s food production. They are the main
producers of staple crops such as rice, maize and wheat, which account for 60 to 80 percent of the food intake in
most developing countries. It is almost always women who are responsible for ensuring that children get enough
to eat. They are key players in day-to-day agricultural tasks, the instigators of activities that generate agricultural
and non-agricultural income and the custodians of natural and productive resources.
Despite their importance women agricultural workers continue to be a marginalized group. What specific
problems do they have to face?
· Women in agriculture generally lack education, decision-making power and rights at work.
· Women often have more difficulty than men getting good land, credit, training and access to markets.
· Women lack access to the equipment required for food production on a large scale.
· Women in agriculture in developing countries also face real challenges with the spread of the HIV/
AIDS epidemic. Nearly 95 per cent of people with HIV are in developing countries. The majority are
poor people in rural areas, and women outnumber men.
· Wars, migration of men for paid employment and rising mortalities due to HIV/AIDS have led to a rise
in the number of female-headed households especially in the rural areas of the developing world. This
leaves women with even more responsibilities.
· A growing number of women work in the informal agricultural sector, largely as street vendors in local
food markets.
· Many women must have second jobs in order to survive. These are often jobs in off-farm industries
including homework at piece rates that yield very low additional earnings.
Percentage change in employment in agriculture between 1996 and 2006
-40.0
-20.0
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe (non-
EU) and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and the
Pacific
South Asia Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
percentage change
female male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Sources: Spieldoch, Alexandra, “A Row to Hoe” - A Study on the Gendered Impact of Trade Liberalization on our Food System, on#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
Agricultural Markets and on Women’s Human Rights”, IATP (Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy), Geneva, 2006,
http://www.iatp.org/tradeobservatory/library.cfm?refID=96833; United Nations FAO, Website fact sheet: “Gender and Food Security:
Agriculture”, http://www.fao.org/GENDER/en/agri-e.htm; FAO-ILO-IUF, Agricultural workers and their contribution to sustainable
agriculture and rural development, Geneva, 2005, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/actrav/new/061005.pdf.
The sex segregation of occupations is changing, but progress is slow. Female employment
stereotypes, such as carers and home-based workers, are still being reinforced. They may be
8 For more details see Global Employment Trends for Women 2004, http://www.ilo.org/trends.
9 Global Employment Trends for Women
perpetuated into the next generation if restricted and inferior labour market opportunities for women
continue to lead to underinvestment in women’s education, training and experience. It is notable
that these trends continue even when women migrate. Within host countries they occupy the same
type of jobs as at home and are often faced with the same discrimination patterns. (See box 4)
Box 4
Women and migration
Over the past decade the number of women who migrated increased significantly. The UNFPA “State of
World Population 2006” estimates that there are 95 million female migrants, accounting for almost half of all
international migrants. Every year millions of women work overseas and send hundreds of millions dollars back
to their homes and communities. In addition, working women leave to marry or rejoin migrant husbands or their
families. Migration of women is common in all age groups. Some women are well educated and searching for
opportunities more consistent with their qualifications. Others are from low-income or poor rural backgrounds
and are seeking a better life for themselves and their children. Women also migrate to flee abusive marriages
and patriarchal traditions in their home countries that limit their opportunities and freedom.
The experiences of migrant women workers are as different as their backgrounds and destinations. While
migration benefits many women, it does not come without challenges. Millions of women face substantial risks.
They often lack adequate opportunities to migrate legally and safely. Women migrants can become trapped in
dangerous situations, ranging from the modern enslavement of trafficking to prostitution and severe exploitation
in domestic work. As women and migrant workers, they can be highly disadvantaged after their arrival in the
destination country, especially if other factors, such as race, class and religion also come into play. Moreover,
many migrant women are unaware of their rights.
Women migrant workers can make their best contribution when enjoying decent working conditions and#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
when their fundamental human and labour rights are respected in the host countries. Labour migration policies
should aim to eradicate discrimination and gender inequality and to tackle other vulnerabilities. Not only should
host countries make sure that women get a fair chance in labour markets, but home countries should address the
disruptive impact that migration of women, especially mothers, has on the family unit and children.
Recent studies have shown that appropriate policies and rules can help to make migration a “triple-win”
situation that benefits host countries, home countries and migrants and their families. For this to happen,
however, it is important that women and men profit to the same extent.
Trends in female migration, 1995-2005
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
50.0
52.0
54.0
56.0
World Africa Asia Europe Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Northern
America
Oceania
Female share of
international migrants (%)
1995 2000 2005
Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant
Stock: The 2005 Revision http://esa.un.org/migration.
Sources: ILO Theme paper on Globalization, International Labour Migration and Rights of Migrant Workers, Geneva, December 2006.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/pws_new_paper.pdf ; ILO Statement to the United Nations High-Level
Dialogue on International Migration and Development, New York, 14-15 September, 2006. International Labour Migration and
Development: The ILO Perspective. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/perspectives.pdf; UNFPA State of
world population 2006 on women and international migration. http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/650_filename_sowp06-en.pdf
10 Global Employment Trends for Women
4.2 Status of women’s economic activity
Although there has been progress toward more even sharing of family responsibilities in some
economically developed countries, such responsibilities are still very much assigned to women.
When women work, it is usually up to them to find solutions that balance child-raising with
employment. This is likely to be a greater challenge for women in wage employment, less for those
in self-employment and least for contributing family workers who are unpaid (but still count as
employed people according to the standard definition of employment). At the same time, economic
independence, or at least co-determination in resource distribution within the family, is highest
when women are in wage and salaried work, lower when they are own-account workers and lowest
when they are unpaid family workers.
The move from being an unpaid contributing family worker or a low paid own-account
worker into wage and salaried employment is a major step forward in terms of freedom and selfdetermination#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
for many women – even though it does not always entail getting a decent job right
away. The importance of this step in fostering gender equality is recognized in the UN Millennium
Development Goal 3 “Promote gender equality and empower women”. One of the indicators to
measure progress is the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector. This
indicator was developed by the ILO and shows clearly that the poorer a country or a region, the
smaller this share is.9
When evaluating progress made by women in the world of work, trends regarding status of
employment help provide more detailed information. For the first time the ILO has released
estimates at regional level on the status of employment for men and women (see box 5 for further
explanation and table 5 for detailed numbers), tracking changes over time.
These show that the share of female wage and salaried workers has increased over the past ten
years. In 2006, 47.9 per cent of working women were in wage and salaried employment compared
with 42.9 per cent ten years earlier. The share of own-account workers increased from 22.4 per cent
in 1996 to 25.7 per cent in 2006 and the share of contributing family workers dropped from 33.2 per
cent to 25.1 per cent during the same period. However, in the poorest regions of the world the share
of female contributing family workers in total employment is still much higher than men’s, with
women less likely to be wage and salaried workers. In sub-Saharan Africa as well as in South East
Asia, four out of ten working women are classified as contributing family workers compared with
two out of ten men. In South Asia, six out of ten working women are classified as contributing
family workers, but again only two out of ten working men have this status. In the Middle East and
North Africa, the proportions are three out of ten women and one out of ten men.
Even though the flexibility when working on their own account can allow women to combine
work and family duties, female own account workers as a share in total female employment is
smaller in all regions than men’s share. But in the two poorest regions in the world, more women
work as own-account workers than as wage and salaried workers. In sub-Saharan Africa, four out of
ten women work as own-account workers and only two out of ten work as wage and salaried
workers. In South Asia, two out of 10 are own-account workers and 1.5 out of ten belong to the
group of wage and salaried workers. In all other regions, more women work as wage and salaried
workers than as own-account workers.
An expected result of economic development would be for people to move from being
contributing family workers and own-account workers to wage and salaried employment. Ideally
women should profit from this trend as much as men. A look at one of the fastest developing#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
regions – East Asia – shows that women do profit, with the share of women working as contributing
family workers dropping by 18 percentage points from 38.8 per cent in 1996 to 20.9 per cent in
2006. At the same time, the share in wage and salaried employment rose by 9.5 percentage points
and the share in own-account work went up by 8.7 percentage points. In parallel, there was a
substantial decline in the proportion of women employed in agriculture and an increase in the
9 For more details on this indicator see http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=Data/Trends.htm and
http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/GMIS/gdmis.do?siteId=2&contentId=Content_t11&menuId=LNAV01HOME1.
11 Global Employment Trends for Women
percentage working in industry and services. Men followed the same pattern, but the increase in
wage and salaried work was smaller, as was the increase in own-account work.
While status per se does not necessarily shed light on quality of jobs, contributing family
workers and own-account workers are less likely to work in decent conditions. Research comparing
figures on the working poor and employment status showed a very strong correlation between the
total number of people classified as contributing family workers and own-account workers and the
number of working poor at the US$2 a day level. The poorer the region, the stronger this correlation
was. This underlines the inadequate working conditions of these status groups in poor countries.
In summary, the status of women in the world of work has improved, but gains have been
slow. While women have slightly closed the status gap with men, the sluggish pace of change
means that disparities remain significant.
Box 5
Women and status
The indicator of status in employment distinguishes between types of employment by dividing people
into three categories. These are wage and salaried workers (also known as employees); self employed workers;
contributing family workers (also known as family workers).
For the first time this report gives regional estimates of the employment status of men and women. This
indicator can contribute to a better understanding of labour markets. It provides information on the distribution
of the workforce by status in employment and can be used to asses the proportion of employed persons in a
country who (a) work for wages or salaries; (b) run their own enterprises, with or without hired labour; or (c)
work without pay within the family unit. According to the International Classification of Status in Employment
(ICSE), the basic criteria used to define the status groups are the types of economic risk that they face in their
work, an element of which is the strength of institutional attachment between the person and the job, and the type
of authority over establishment and other workers that the job-holder has or will have as an explicit or implicit#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
result of the employment contract.
Employment status may be used to evaluate whether there is increasing informalization of labour markets,
indicated by a decline in numbers of employees with formal working agreements. Companies may try to create
more flexible enterprises to meet fluctuating demand, using temporary labour rather than permanent staff.
Examination of data on numbers of temporary workers in conjunction with this indicator could help determine
whether temporary jobs are crowding out more stable forms of employment.
The indicator is strongly linked to another indicator on employment by sector. For example, economic
growth could be expected to bring a shift in employment from the agricultural sector to industry and services,
which in return would be reflected in an increase in the number of wage and salaried workers. In addition, a
shrinking share of employment in agriculture would result in a lower proportion of contributing family workers,
who are often found in rural areas of developing countries.
Source: Key Indicators of the Labour Market 4th Edition, International Labour Organization, Geneva, 2006,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/kilm/
4.3 Continuing wage gap
In the last Global Employment Trends for Women in 2004 it was argued that inadequate data
on wages/earnings for men and women made it difficult to reach conclusions on wage/earnings
inequalities. It was not easy to make comparisons between countries and regions, because wage and
earning indicators tended to be based on country-specific criteria that were not always comparable.
For example, there were differences regarding the definition of wage rates and earnings, payment
methods, time units (hourly, weekly), data sources and methods of collection.10 Unfortunately this
situation has not changed. Nevertheless, the little evidence that exists shows that wage gaps persist.
A review of data available for six occupation groups shows that in most economies, women still
earn 90 per cent or less of what their male co-workers earn (see figure 4). Even in “typically
female” occupations such as nursing and teaching, gender wage equality is lacking.
10 For more details see Corley, M, Perardel, Y and Popova, K, “Wage inequality by gender and occupation: A crosscountry
analysis”, Employment Strategy Paper 20/2005, ILO, Geneva, 2005,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/download/esp2005-20.pdf.
12 Global Employment Trends for Women
Historically, there was greater wage equality in the planned economies of Central Eastern
Europe and the CIS than in industrialized or developing economies. This has remained the case in
recent years. For example, the female wages of accountants, computer programmers, teachers and
nurses in transition economies were actually higher than male wages for the latest years with data#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
available (see figure 4). It will be interesting to see if this trend continues or if it reflects the fact
that a few women have successfully managed the transition process, but after their retirement, wage
gaps reflect trends in industrialized economies.
The European Commission11 recently published findings showing that the pay gap between
men and women has remained virtually unchanged at 15 per cent across all sectors in recent years.
The weak performance of women’s wages has been attributed to slower economic growth in the EU
and, in particular, worsening labour market conditions in the new Member States. In addition, even
in many European countries, women are still disproportionately employed in sectors where
wages/earnings are lower and have been declining. For example, in the United Kingdom, 60 per
cent of women workers are found in ten occupations, with the majority concentrated in “the five
Cs”: caring, cashiering, catering, cleaning and clerical. Many of these jobs are in smaller nonunionized
firms, where women have less bargaining power and less possibility to improve their
economic situation vis-à-vis their male counterparts.
Figure 4
Average female wages/earnings as percentage of male wages/earnings in selected
occupations, latest available year
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Accountant Computer
programmer
First-level
education teacher
Hotel receptionist Labourer Professional
nurse (general)
Industrialized economies
Central and Eastern Europe and CIS
Developing economies
Note: Average in this chart denotes a basic average of the countries with available data.
Source: ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market, 4th Edition (Geneva, 2005), tables 16a and 16b.
Corley (2005, op.cit.) found that wage inequality is found in high-skill occupations, even
though applicants in fields such as accounting and computer programming presumably have
comparable education and training. Even in these occupations the average female wage is still only
88 per cent of the male wage. It was shown that countries with a higher relative gender wage gap in
low-skilled occupations also had a high gender gap in high-skilled occupations. Nonetheless, in
11 European Commission, “On Equality between Women and Men”, Brussels, 2005.
13 Global Employment Trends for Women
most countries the wage gap was wider in low-skilled than in high-skilled occupations. In addition,
in a number of countries the gap was shown to be increasing. This study was based mainly on data
from industrialized countries.
A study by Oostendorp12 focuses on the impact of globalization on wages from a gender
perspective. Using the October Inquiry database of the ILO he finds that in low-skilled occupations#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
where women are generally more highly represented, globalization has helped to improve wages
vis-à-vis their male counterparts. At the same time, because there are significant gender gaps in
human capital within high-skilled occupations in developing economies, growing demand for such
skills due to globalization disproportionately favours male workers, leading to a widening of the
wage gap in this category of workers.
In summary, gender pay gaps still exist across all occupations and there is no clear trend that
they are narrowing.
5. Conclusions
The findings of this year’s Global Employment Trends for Women are only partly
encouraging. The assumption that in the process of socio-economic development women
increasingly enter modern sector, permanent, full-time wage employment does not hold – at least
not for all regions. Increases in labour force participation so far have not always been matched by
improvements in job quality, and working conditions of women have not led to true social and
economic empowerment, especially in the world’s poor regions.
Women have more difficulties not only in participating in labour markets but also in finding
decent and productive work. Women are still less likely to be in regular wage and salaried
employment. In addition, the female share of contributing family workers exceeds the male rate in
all regions of the world. In economies with large agricultural sectors, women work more often in
this sector than men. Women’s share of employment in the services sector also exceeds that of men.
Additionally, women are more likely to earn less than men for the same type of work, even in
traditionally female occupations.
All these findings point to the greater vulnerability of women in the world of work. It is
therefore very likely that women are disproportionately affected by working poverty – they work
but do not earn enough to lift themselves and their families above the US $1 a day line. The results
are consistent with the estimates made in the last Global Employment Trends for Women (2004)
that women make up at least 60 per cent of the world’s working poor. There is no reason to believe
that this situation has changed considerably.
Creating adequate decent and productive work for women is possible, as shown by some of
the progress detailed above. But policy-makers not only need to place employment at the centre of
social and economic policies, they also have to recognize that the challenges faced by women in the
world of work require intervention tailored to specific needs. Women must be given the chance to
work themselves and their families out of poverty through creation of decent employment
opportunities that help them secure productive and remunerative work in conditions of freedom,
security and human dignity. Otherwise the process of feminization of poverty will continue and be#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
passed on to the next generation.
12 Oostendorp, R.H, “Globalization and the Gender Wage Gap”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3256,
Washington, D.C., 2004.
14 Global Employment Trends for Women
Annex 1
Table 1
Global labour market indicators, 1996 and 2006
Female Male Total
1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
Labour force (millions) 1052.0 1238.9 1592.2 1852.0 2644.2 3090.9
Employment (millions) 985.4 1157.1 1497.5 1738.6 2482.8 2895.7
Unemployment (millions) 66.7 81.8 94.7 113.4 161.4 195.2
Labour force participation rate (%) 53.0 52.4 80.5 78.8 66.7 65.5
Employment-to-population ratio (%) 49.6 48.9 75.7 74.0 62.6 61.4
Unemployment rate (%) 6.3 6.6 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.3
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Table 2
Male and female labour force participation rates (%)
and the gender gap in economically active females per 100 males, 2006
Female LFPR
(%)
Male LFPR
(%)
Gender gap in
economically active
females per 100 males
World 52.4 78.8 66.9
Developed Economies 52.7 68.8 81.4
Transition Economies 49.4 68.7 81.0
East Asia 66.8 81.4 79.3
South-East Asia 58.9 82.8 72.7
South Asia 36.0 82.2 41.8
Latin America and the Caribbean 52.4 79.4 69.5
Middle East and North Africa 29.5 77.3 36.7
Sub-Saharan Africa 62.8 85.9 74.8
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Table 3
Male and female employment-to-population ratios
and unemployment rates 1996 and 2006
Female
employment-topopulation
ratio
(%)
Male
employment-topopulation
ratio
(%)
Female
unemployment
rate (%)
Male
unemployment
rate (%)
1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 49.6 48.9 75.7 74.0 6.3 6.6 5.9 6.1
Developed Economies and European Union 46.6 49.2 65.8 64.7 8.4 6.6 7.3 5.9
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 46.4 44.9 64.2 62.2 9.6 9.1 9.7 9.5
East Asia 68.8 64.9 81.1 78.1 3.1 3.0 4.2 4.1
South East Asia and the Pacific 55.3 55.0 80.0 77.4 4.0 6.6 3.6 6.5
South Asia 34.9 33.8 80.6 78.3 4.9 6.2 4.2 4.9
Latin America and the Caribbean 41.5 47.0 76.2 74.3 10.2 10.4 6.5 6.4
Middle East and North Africa 20.4 24.5 68.3 69.3 18.1 17.0 11.5 10.4
Sub-Saharan Africa 58.7 56.8 79.2 77.4 9.0 9.6 9.3 9.9
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
15 Global Employment Trends for Women
Table 4
Male and female share in total employment by sector 1996 and 2006
Employment in
agriculture (%)
Employment in
industry (%)
Employment in
services (%)
Females 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 45.4 40.4 17.4 17.2 37.2 42.4
Developed Economies and European Union 4.3 2.5 16.8 12.4 78.9 85.1
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 25.5 21.6 22.1 19.7 52.4 58.7#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
East Asia 58.4 52.1 24.0 24.7 17.6 23.3
South East Asia and the Pacific 52.5 47.2 13.7 15.4 33.8 37.3
South Asia 72.6 64.5 12.0 17.7 15.4 17.9
Latin America and the Caribbean 14.0 9.9 14.5 14.3 71.5 75.8
Middle East and North Africa 33.0 39.1 17.7 11.7 49.2 49.2
Sub-Saharan Africa 69.4 64.2 5.8 5.5 24.7 30.3
Males 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 41.6 37.5 23.9 24.0 34.5 38.4
Developed Economies and European Union 5.8 3.7 37.3 33.6 56.9 62.7
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 26.8 22.4 32.7 34.3 40.5 43.3
East Asia 50.4 45.3 26.2 26.8 23.3 27.9
South East Asia and the Pacific 49.9 46.8 18.3 19.5 31.8 33.6
South Asia 53.9 46.4 16.8 19.3 29.3 34.3
Latin America and the Caribbean 28.5 24.7 23.7 23.4 47.9 51.9
Middle East and North Africa 28.8 26.7 22.8 26.5 48.4 46.8
Sub-Saharan Africa 67.0 62.1 11.4 11.3 21.5 26.6
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
16 Global Employment Trends for Women
Table 5
Male and female status of employment 1996 and 2006
Total (%)
Wage and
salaried worker Employers
Own-Account
Workers
Contributing
family workers
Females 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 42.9 47.9 1.5 1.4 22.4 25.7 33.2 25.1
Developed Economies and European
Union 86.7 89.5 3.4 3.0 6.4 5.4 3.5 2.1
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and
CIS 78.5 79.0 0.5 0.8 10.2 12.4 10.8 7.8
East Asia 31.4 40.8 1.1 0.8 28.7 37.4 38.8 20.9
South East Asia and the Pacific 28.8 34.9 1.0 1.0 22.9 27.1 47.2 37.1
South Asia 10.3 15.3 0.5 0.4 16.3 21.7 72.8 62.6
Latin America and the Caribbean 66.6 67.5 2.0 1.7 24.2 25.6 7.2 5.1
Middle East and North Africa 47.5 56.2 2.4 4.1 17.1 11.3 33.0 28.4
Sub-Saharan Africa 13.8 17.0 1.1 1.4 49.0 42.3 36.2 39.3
Males 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 45.7 49.2 3.8 3.3 34.7 35.9 15.8 11.6
Developed Economies and European
Union 81.9 83.1 6.9 6.9 10.2 9.3 1.0 0.7
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and
CIS 76.5 76.2 2.6 2.9 15.8 17.5 5.1 3.4
East Asia 42.1 48.7 2.9 1.5 34.7 37.0 20.4 12.8
South East Asia and the Pacific 37.6 41.4 3.1 2.6 41.2 41.4 18.1 14.6
South Asia 19.5 27.2 2.3 1.4 55.8 55.2 22.4 16.2
Latin America and the Caribbean 59.3 60.7 5.0 4.4 29.5 31.1 6.2 3.7
Middle East and North Africa 52.2 55.4 9.7 11.4 23.4 21.2 14.7 11.9
Sub-Saharan Africa 26.8 29.5 2.7 2.7 43.6 44.4 27.0 23.3
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
17 Global Employment Trends for Women
Annex 2. Key regional labour market indicators for women and issues
for consideration
The following tables present the most current labour market indicators for women and offer a general
assessment of the most pressing issues in each region.13 These tables can be used as a starting point for
policy makers and international agencies as indication of the true challenges that need to be focused on#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
regarding women. The variations of indicator results and issues for consideration presented in each regional
table are a reminder that it is better to discuss female labour market trends on the regional level rather than
the global level.
Developed Economies and European Union
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 52.7%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 49.2%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.6%
· Female share of total employment: 44.7%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 2.5% / 12.4% / 85.1%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried
workers (89.5%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates:
-16.1 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age population: 51.5%
· Fertility rate below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 2.1%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: high
Some issues for consideration
· Job quality, contracts, hours of work
· Balancing flexibility with security
· Gender wage gaps
· Declining employment content of growth
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 49.4%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 44.9%
· Female unemployment rate: 9.1%
· Female share of total employment: 44.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 21.6% / 19.7% / 58.7%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(79.0%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
19.3 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 53.0%
· Fertility rate below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-2006: 6.1%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.1%, US$2 a day 10.5%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 1.5%, US$2 a day 7.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
weak
Some issues for consideration
· High numbers of women who are not employed
· Discouragement
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Managing external migration – brain drain
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Balancing flexibility with security
· Child labour
13 Unless otherwise stated data are for 2006. It is important to bear in mind when reviewing this table that the regional assessments#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
mask a great deal of regional variation and readers should be wary of assuming a particularly country “fits” perfectly all of the
characterizations defined.
18 Global Employment Trends for Women
East Asia
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 66.8%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 64.9%
· Female unemployment rate: 3.0%
· Female share of total employment: 44.5%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 52.1% / 24.7% / 23.3%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(40.8%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
14.5 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 49.1%
· Fertility rate slightly below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 8.6%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 12.1%, US$2 a day 44.2%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 10.1%, US$2 a day 36.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: high
Some issues for consideration
· Job quality – social protection, social dialogue, hours of work
· Inequity in rural and urban development
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Job security in small and medium enterprises
· Child labour
South East Asia and the Pacific
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 58.9%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 55.0%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.6%
· Female share of total employment: 42.1%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 47.2% / 15.4% / 37.3%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Contributing family workers
(37.1%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
23.9 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 50.5%
· Fertility rate above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 5.1%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 11.1%, US$2 a day 56.9%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 8.9%, US$2 a day 44.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
low
Some issues for consideration
· Invisible underemployment base on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
· Formal sector growth
· Child labour
19 Global Employment Trends for Women
South Asia
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 36.0%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 33.8%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.2%
· Female share of total employment: 29.2%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 64.5% / 17.7% / 17.9%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Contributing family workers
(62.6%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates:
46.2 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 48.8%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 6.2%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 34.4%, US$2 a day 87.2%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 25.6%, US$2 a day 75.0%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
low
Some issues for consideration
· Graduate unemployment
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Barriers to labour market entry high for young females
· Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Investment and job creation
· High poverty
· Formal sector growth
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Child labour
Latin America and the Caribbean
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 52.4%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 47.0%
· Female unemployment rate: 10.4%
· Female share of total employment: 39.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 9.9% / 14.3% / 75.8% of
total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(67.5%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
27.0 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 51.3%
· Fertility rate slightly above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 1.5%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 11.3%, US$2 a day 30.9%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 8.8%, US$2 a day 23.3%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium
Some issues for consideration
· Barriers to labour market entry high for young women
· Improving education enrolment rates and education system
· Encouraging investment and job creation#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
· Formal sector growth
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Job quality
· Child labour
20 Global Employment Trends for Women
Middle East and North Africa
Indicators
留學(xué)生dissertation網(wǎng)Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 29.5%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 24.5%
· Female unemployment rate: 17.0%
· Female share of total employment: 25.4%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 39.1% / 11.7% / 49.2%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(56.2%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
47.8 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 49.1%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 5.0%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.8%, US$2 a day 34.7%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.1%, US$2 a day 23.7%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
high
Some issues for consideration
· Barriers to labour market entry high for all females
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Stagnant income poverty
· Graduate unemployment
· Job quality
· Managing external and internal migration
· Investment and job creation
· Informal job search / hiring networks
· Civil conflicts
· Child labour
Sub-Saharan Africa
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 62.8%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 56.8%
· Female unemployment rate: 9.6%
· Female share of total employment: 42.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 64.2% / 5.5% / 30.3% of
total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Own account workers (42.3%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
23.1 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 50.6%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 4.6%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 55.4%, US$2 a day 86.3%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 46.1%, US$2 a day 73.8%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: low
Some issues for consideration
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
· High poverty
· Civil conflicts, child soldiers
· Improving education enrolment rates and education system
· Nutrition and disease, including HIV-AIDS
· Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Formal sector growth
· Improving infrastructure
· Child labourGLOBAL EMPLOYMENT TRENDS for WOMEN
BRIEF, March 2007
1. Overview
During the 1980s and 1990s women’s participation in labour markets worldwide grew
substantially. This gave rise to expectations that increased opportunities and economic autonomy
for women would bring greater gender equality. To help determine the extent to which such hopes
are being realized, it is necessary to analyse women’s labour market trends in more detail. To this
end, the Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 focuses on whether the tendency toward
increased participation has continued more recently and whether women have found enough decent
and productive jobs to really enable them to use their potential in the labour market and achieve
economic independence.
The approach is based on updates and analysis of a number of major labour market indicators.
These include: labour force participation; unemployment; sector and status of employment;
wages/earnings; and education and skills. Taken together, they show whether women who want to
work actually do so, whether women find it harder to get a job than men, differences in the type of
work done by women and men and equality of treatment in areas ranging from pay to education and
training.
Main findings are:
· In absolute numbers, more women than ever before are participating in labour markets
worldwide. They are either in work or actively looking for a job.
· This overall figure only tells part of the story, however. During the past ten years, the
labour force participation rate (the share of working-age women who work or are
seeking work) stopped growing, with many regions registering declines. This reversal
is notable, even though it partially reflects greater participation of young women in
education.
· More women than ever before are actually in work1. The female share of total
employment stayed almost unchanged at 40 percent in 2006 (from 39.7 per cent 10
years ago).
· At the same time, more women than ever before are unemployed, with the rate of
women’s unemployment (6.6 per cent) higher than that of men (6.1 per cent).
· Women are more likely to work in low productivity jobs in agriculture and services.
Women’s share in industrial employment is much smaller than men’s and has#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
decreased over the last ten years.
· The poorer the region, the greater the likelihood that women work as unpaid
contributing family members2 or low-income own-account workers. Female
1 The expression “in work” summarizes all people employed according to the ILO definition, which includes selfemployed,
employed, employers as well as unpaid family members. The words “employed” and “in work” are used as
synonyms in this GET for Women Brief 2007.
ISBN 978-92-2-120136-6
2 Global Employment Trends for Women
contributing family workers, in particular, are not likely to be economically
independent.
· The step from unpaid contributing family worker or low-paid own-account worker to
wage and salaried employment is a major step toward freedom and self-determination
for many women. The share of women in wage and salaried work grew during the past
ten years from 42.9 per cent in 1996 to 47.9 per cent in 2006. However, especially in
the world’s poorest regions, this share is still smaller for women than for men,
· There is evidence that wage gaps persist. Throughout most regions and many
occupations women get less money for the same job. But there is also some evidence
that globalization can help close the wage gap for some occupations.
· Young women are more likely to be able to read and write than 10 years ago. But
there is still a gap between female and male education levels. And there is
considerable doubt that women get the same chances as men to develop their skills
throughout their working lives.
These trends show that despite some progress, there is no cause for complacency. Policies to
enhance women’s chances to participate equally in labour markets are starting to pay off, but the
pace with which gaps are closing is very slow. As a result, women are more likely than men to
become discouraged and give up hope of being economically active. And for women who work,
there is a greater likelihood to be among the working poor – they work but they do not earn enough
to lift themselves and their families out of poverty. Given finally the persisting lack of socioeconomic
empowerment for women and unequal distribution of household responsibilities, there
remains some way to go to achieve equality between men and women.
At a time when the world increasingly realizes that decent and productive work is the only
sustainable way out of poverty, analyzing women’s role in the world of work is particularly
important. Progress on full, productive and decent employment, a new target within the Millennium
Development Goals, will only be possible if the specific needs for women in labour markets are
addressed.3
2. Female participation in labour markets
The growing proportion of women in the labour force and narrowing gap between male and#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
female participation rates has been one of the most striking labour market trends of recent times.
During the past ten years, however, a more nuanced picture has emerged regarding female
participation, with considerable differences among age groups and regions.
Overall, there have never before been so many economically active women. The total female
labour force, which is made up of both employed and unemployed women, was 1.2 billion in 2006,
up from 1.1 billion in 1996 (see table 1). The gap between female and male labour force
participation rates (the labour force as a share of working age population) diminished somewhat
during the 10-year period. Whereas ten years ago there were 66 active women per 100 active men,
in 2006 this number was still at almost the same level, with 67 women per 100 men (see table 2). At
the same time, the female labour force participation rate decreased slightly to 52.4 per cent from
53.0 per cent in 1996. However, rather than this being a sign of stagnation, it is the result of two
positive counterbalancing trends. As education among young women spreads more widely, young
women’s labour force participation decreases. At the same time, the participation rate for adult
women was slightly higher in 2006 than ten years earlier.
Meanwhile, trends at the regional level vary noticeably. Increases in women’s economic
activity were particularly high in Latin America, Middle East and North Africa, and Developed
2 The expressions “unpaid contributing family workers”, “unpaid contributing family members”, “contributing family
workers” and “contributing family members” are used as synonyms.
3 This brief is a condensed version of the ILO working paper “Global Employment Trends for Women 2007”,
forthcoming 2007.
3 Global Employment Trends for Women
Economies and the EU. This led in all three cases to a smaller gap between male and female labour
force participation rates. On the other hand, there are also regions where the gap widened. In sub-
Saharan Africa the gap was 0.3 percentage points larger in 2006 than 10 years earlier and in East
Asia it increased by almost 1 percentage point (see figure 1).
Figure 1
Labour force participation rates, by sex and region, 1996 and 2006
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe (non-
EU) and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and the
Pacific
South Asia Latin
America and
the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
1996 Male 2006 Male 1996 Female 2006 Female
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
However, regardless of these regional variations, the difference between male and female
economic activity remains conspicuous throughout the world. In the Developed Economies and EU,
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS4 and in East Asia, about 80 women per 100 men are
economically active. In sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio is 75 women per 100 men, in South East Asia
and the Pacific it is 73 to 100 and in Latin America and the Caribbean, 69 to 100. The biggest gaps
are found in South Asia, with 42 to 100, and Middle East and North Africa, with 37 to 100 (see
table 2).
Taken on their own, rising or high labour force participation rates do not necessarily mean
that labour markets are developing positively for women. The labour force participation rate does
not provide an insight into the likelihood of being employed, nor does it indicate the quality of jobs.
It also does not show how many people are participating in education, which is a good reason to be
out of the labour force. The following sections, therefore, provide a more detailed analysis of the
employment situation for women and their conditions of work.
3. Unemployment among women
In 2006, women globally still had a higher likelihood of being unemployed compared with
men. The female unemployment rate stood at 6.6 per cent, compared to a male rate of 6.1 per cent
(see figure 2a). In addition, women’s unemployment rate rose over the ten-year period from 6.3 per
cent in 1996. In total 81.8 million women who were willing to work and actively looking for work
were without a job. This was up 22.7 per cent from 10 years earlier.
The difficulty of finding work is even more pronounced for young women (aged 15 to 24
years), with 35.6 million young women seeking an employment opportunity in 2006. Youth
unemployment rates, both male and female, are higher than adult unemployment rates in all regions.
In five, the regional female youth unemployment rate exceeds that of men. This is not the case in
East Asia, Developed Economies and EU and sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 2b).5
4 Given that this Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 analyses the period until 2006 Bulgaria and
Romania were kept in this region despite the fact that since January 2007 they are new EU member states.
5 For more details see Global Employment Trends for Youth 2006, http://www.ilo.org/trends.
4 Global Employment Trends for Women
Figure 2a
World and regional unemployment rates, by sex, 2006
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
World Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe
(non-EU)
and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and
the Pacific
South Asia Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
and North
Africa
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
Unemployment rate (%)
Female
Male
Figure 2b
World and regional Female youth unemployment rates, by sex, 2006
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
World Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe
(non-EU)
and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and
the Pacific
South Asia Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
Unemployment rate (%)
Female
Male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Unemployment indicators provide a limited picture of the condition of labour markets. For a
clearer image, they should be viewed in conjunction with employment-to-population ratios, data on
employment by status and sector as well as wage and earning indicators. Ideally they should also be
interpreted together with working poor numbers, as these give a good indication of whether the jobs
created are of decent enough quality to give women a chance to work themselves and their families
out of poverty. However, as discussed in box 1, it is not yet possible to estimate women’s working
poverty at a regional level. Finally, unemployment estimates exclude people who want to work but
may not actively “seek” work because they feel there is none available, have restricted labour
5 Global Employment Trends for Women
mobility or face discrimination or structural, social or cultural barriers. These are known as
discouraged workers. Although there is a dearth of data on discouraged workers, a review of data
available for industrialized economies revealed that females made up approximately two-thirds of
discouraged workers in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway
and Portugal, with the female share of total discouraged workers near 90 per cent in Italy and
Switzerland.6 Given that women face higher unemployment rates, have far fewer opportunities in
labour markets than men and often face social barriers to enter labour markets, it is very likely that
discouragement among women is higher than among men in most countries in the developing
world.
Box 1
Women and poverty
Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. Poor people can suffer from material deprivation, lack of
money, dependency on benefits, social exclusion or inequality. Despite these many aspects, the most common
measurements of poverty focus on monetary income. Usually poverty it is measured as the share of people in a
country living below US$1 or US$2 a day. The main sources for poverty statistics are income and expenditure
data collected through national household surveys. Unfortunately such information is inadequate for measuring#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
gender differences, because it concerns entire households rather than individuals. In addition, results give a
snapshot of household poverty at a particular moment and do not capture changes over time. As a result,
poverty data is not disaggregated by sex, making it impossible to estimate poverty among women that work.
However, the statistical and anecdotal evidence that does exist has lead to a growing perception that poverty is
becoming feminized, with women accounting for an increasing proportion of the world’s poor and working
poor. The findings of this report support this view. As long as there are inequalities in labour markets, women
will find it harder than men to escape poverty.
Sources: Spicker, Paul, “The idea of poverty”, Bristol, 2007; UNIFEM, ”Report on “Progress of the World’s Women, 2005”, New York,
2005, http://www.un-ngls.org/women-2005.pdf; UNIFEM, “The World’s Women 2005: Progress in Statistics”, New York, 2005,
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/wwpub.htm
A closer look at the employment situation for women is also not encouraging. Employmentto-
population ratios – which indicate how efficiently economies make use of the productive
potential of their working-age population – are in all regions of the world much lower for women
than for men (see table 3). Only half of working-age women (15+) actually work. For men, the
proportion is more than seven out of ten. The difference is most notable in the Middle East and
North Africa, where only slightly more than two out of every ten working-age women are
employed, compared to seven out of ten for men. The situation is only slightly better in South Asia.
The gap between female and male employment-to-population ratios decreased for the world as a
whole over the past decade. However, in East Asia it widened and in sub-Saharan Africa it was
unchanged.
While not all women of working age may wish to work, the existence of significant
unemployment indicates that there are many women who want a job but are unable to find one. Part
of the employment gaps that remain in industrialized economies may be attributed to the fact that
some women choose to stay at home because they can afford not to enter the labour market. But in
other regions of the world, it is more likely that women would work if there were opportunities for
them to do so. Attracting more women into the labour force also requires as a first step equal access
to education and equal opportunities in gaining the skills necessary to compete in the labour market.
As is discussed in box 2, this equality in education is still far out of reach in most regions.
6 OECD, Employment Outlook, Paris, 2003.
6 Global Employment Trends for Women
Box 2
Women and education
Education is a basic right. It is essential for development, as education can help people to find solutions to#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
their problems and can provide new opportunities. It opens chances to participate in labour markets or to look for
more decent employment opportunities. Still, almost 800 million adults have not had the opportunity to learn
how to read and write, about two third of whom are women. In addition, 60 percent of school drop-outs are girls,
as they often have to leave school at early ages to help in households or to work. Moreover, there are often
cultural restrictions that prevent girls from finishing even basic education, severely limiting their chances to
determine their own future.
The lowest literacy rates for women can be found in South and West Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the
Arab States. Even though these have increased in recent times, their comparatively low levels reflect the
disadvantages faced by women in these regions.
Unfortunately basic education does not always translate into better employment opportunities. This is
why it is important for women to continue to gain knowledge and skills beyond those acquired during youth. An
underlying reason for the discrepancy in decent work opportunities between adult men and women could well be
the lack of lifelong learning opportunities for many women.
Literacy rates* by region (2000-2004)
South and West Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Latin America and the
Caribbean
East Asia and the
Pacific
Central and Eastern
Europe
Developed Countries
Central Asia
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
literacy rates (%)
male 15+
female 15+
male (15-24)
female (15-24)
*Traditionally, UNESCO has defined literacy as ‘a person’s ability to read and write, with understanding, a simple statement about one’s
everyday life’. The grouping of countries into regions is taken as provided by UNESCO and differs slightly from the groupings used in this
publication.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, September 2006, http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=5020_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC.
7 Global Employment Trends for Women
4. Women’s working conditions
There is no single agreed-upon indicator for assessing the conditions of decent and productive
employment.7 However, some insights can be gained by analyzing three indicators: employment by
sector; status of employment (see box 5); and wages/earnings.
4.1 Sectors of employment
For the first time in 2005 agriculture was no longer the main sector of employment for
women, and this trend continued in 2006. The service sector now provides most jobs for women.
Out of the total number of employed women in 2006, 40.4 per cent worked in agriculture and 42.4
per cent in services. Meanwhile, 17.2 per cent of all women working were in the industry. (The
comparable male rates were 37.5 per cent in agriculture, 38.4 per cent in services and 24 per cent in#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
industry). (See figure 3 and table 4).
Figure 3
Female and male sectoral employment shares
as percentage of total employment, 1996-2006
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
(%)
Agriculture female Industry female Services female
Agriculture male Industry male Services male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Women have a higher share of agricultural employment than men in East Asia, South Asia,
sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa. In the other regions, it is usually the
poorer countries that show a higher share of female employment in agriculture. Box 3 discusses the
special challenges women face when working in this sector.
In all regions, women’s share of employment in industry is lower than that of men. The
difference is particularly marked in the Developed Economies and EU, where only 12.4 per cent of
women work in this sector compared to 33.6 per cent of men. Within developing regions, the
differences are considerable in Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS as well as in Middle
East and North Africa and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. Within the
Asian regions, shares are more balanced between men and women. (See table 4).
The service sector has overtaken agriculture for women’s employment in 4 out of the 8
regions: Developed Economies and EU; Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS; Latin
7 A compelling and comprehensive collection of articles that highlight good practices regarding working conditions for
women and gender equality in the world of work can be found in: ILO, “Gender Equality Around the World”, Articles
from World of Work Magazine, 1999-2006, March 2007.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inf/event/women/2007/gender_equality.pdf
8 Global Employment Trends for Women
America; and Middle East and North Africa. On the other hand, in East Asia, South Asia and sub-
Saharan Africa agriculture is by far the most important sector of women’s employment. Within
services, women are still concentrated in areas traditionally associated with their gender roles,
particularly in community, social and personal services. Men dominate the better-paid jobs in
financial and business services and real estate.8
Box 3
Women and agriculture
Women agricultural workers are responsible for half of the world’s food production. They are the main
producers of staple crops such as rice, maize and wheat, which account for 60 to 80 percent of the food intake in
most developing countries. It is almost always women who are responsible for ensuring that children get enough
to eat. They are key players in day-to-day agricultural tasks, the instigators of activities that generate agricultural#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
and non-agricultural income and the custodians of natural and productive resources.
Despite their importance women agricultural workers continue to be a marginalized group. What specific
problems do they have to face?
· Women in agriculture generally lack education, decision-making power and rights at work.
· Women often have more difficulty than men getting good land, credit, training and access to markets.
· Women lack access to the equipment required for food production on a large scale.
· Women in agriculture in developing countries also face real challenges with the spread of the HIV/
AIDS epidemic. Nearly 95 per cent of people with HIV are in developing countries. The majority are
poor people in rural areas, and women outnumber men.
· Wars, migration of men for paid employment and rising mortalities due to HIV/AIDS have led to a rise
in the number of female-headed households especially in the rural areas of the developing world. This
leaves women with even more responsibilities.
· A growing number of women work in the informal agricultural sector, largely as street vendors in local
food markets.
· Many women must have second jobs in order to survive. These are often jobs in off-farm industries
including homework at piece rates that yield very low additional earnings.
Percentage change in employment in agriculture between 1996 and 2006
-40.0
-20.0
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
Developed
Economies
and
European
Union
Central and
Eastern
Europe (non-
EU) and CIS
East Asia South East
Asia and the
Pacific
South Asia Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Middle East
and North
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
percentage change
female male
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Sources: Spieldoch, Alexandra, “A Row to Hoe” - A Study on the Gendered Impact of Trade Liberalization on our Food System, on
Agricultural Markets and on Women’s Human Rights”, IATP (Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy), Geneva, 2006,
http://www.iatp.org/tradeobservatory/library.cfm?refID=96833; United Nations FAO, Website fact sheet: “Gender and Food Security:
Agriculture”, http://www.fao.org/GENDER/en/agri-e.htm; FAO-ILO-IUF, Agricultural workers and their contribution to sustainable
agriculture and rural development, Geneva, 2005, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/actrav/new/061005.pdf.
The sex segregation of occupations is changing, but progress is slow. Female employment
stereotypes, such as carers and home-based workers, are still being reinforced. They may be
8 For more details see Global Employment Trends for Women 2004, http://www.ilo.org/trends.
9 Global Employment Trends for Women#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
perpetuated into the next generation if restricted and inferior labour market opportunities for women
continue to lead to underinvestment in women’s education, training and experience. It is notable
that these trends continue even when women migrate. Within host countries they occupy the same
type of jobs as at home and are often faced with the same discrimination patterns. (See box 4)
Box 4
Women and migration
Over the past decade the number of women who migrated increased significantly. The UNFPA “State of
World Population 2006” estimates that there are 95 million female migrants, accounting for almost half of all
international migrants. Every year millions of women work overseas and send hundreds of millions dollars back
to their homes and communities. In addition, working women leave to marry or rejoin migrant husbands or their
families. Migration of women is common in all age groups. Some women are well educated and searching for
opportunities more consistent with their qualifications. Others are from low-income or poor rural backgrounds
and are seeking a better life for themselves and their children. Women also migrate to flee abusive marriages
and patriarchal traditions in their home countries that limit their opportunities and freedom.
The experiences of migrant women workers are as different as their backgrounds and destinations. While
migration benefits many women, it does not come without challenges. Millions of women face substantial risks.
They often lack adequate opportunities to migrate legally and safely. Women migrants can become trapped in
dangerous situations, ranging from the modern enslavement of trafficking to prostitution and severe exploitation
in domestic work. As women and migrant workers, they can be highly disadvantaged after their arrival in the
destination country, especially if other factors, such as race, class and religion also come into play. Moreover,
many migrant women are unaware of their rights.
Women migrant workers can make their best contribution when enjoying decent working conditions and
when their fundamental human and labour rights are respected in the host countries. Labour migration policies
should aim to eradicate discrimination and gender inequality and to tackle other vulnerabilities. Not only should
host countries make sure that women get a fair chance in labour markets, but home countries should address the
disruptive impact that migration of women, especially mothers, has on the family unit and children.
Recent studies have shown that appropriate policies and rules can help to make migration a “triple-win”
situation that benefits host countries, home countries and migrants and their families. For this to happen,
however, it is important that women and men profit to the same extent.
Trends in female migration, 1995-2005
40.0#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
50.0
52.0
54.0
56.0
World Africa Asia Europe Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Northern
America
Oceania
Female share of
international migrants (%)
1995 2000 2005
Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant
Stock: The 2005 Revision http://esa.un.org/migration.
Sources: ILO Theme paper on Globalization, International Labour Migration and Rights of Migrant Workers, Geneva, December 2006.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/pws_new_paper.pdf ; ILO Statement to the United Nations High-Level
Dialogue on International Migration and Development, New York, 14-15 September, 2006. International Labour Migration and
Development: The ILO Perspective. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/perspectives.pdf; UNFPA State of
world population 2006 on women and international migration. http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/650_filename_sowp06-en.pdf
10 Global Employment Trends for Women
4.2 Status of women’s economic activity
Although there has been progress toward more even sharing of family responsibilities in some
economically developed countries, such responsibilities are still very much assigned to women.
When women work, it is usually up to them to find solutions that balance child-raising with
employment. This is likely to be a greater challenge for women in wage employment, less for those
in self-employment and least for contributing family workers who are unpaid (but still count as
employed people according to the standard definition of employment). At the same time, economic
independence, or at least co-determination in resource distribution within the family, is highest
when women are in wage and salaried work, lower when they are own-account workers and lowest
when they are unpaid family workers.
The move from being an unpaid contributing family worker or a low paid own-account
worker into wage and salaried employment is a major step forward in terms of freedom and selfdetermination
for many women – even though it does not always entail getting a decent job right
away. The importance of this step in fostering gender equality is recognized in the UN Millennium
Development Goal 3 “Promote gender equality and empower women”. One of the indicators to
measure progress is the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector. This
indicator was developed by the ILO and shows clearly that the poorer a country or a region, the
smaller this share is.9
When evaluating progress made by women in the world of work, trends regarding status of
employment help provide more detailed information. For the first time the ILO has released#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
estimates at regional level on the status of employment for men and women (see box 5 for further
explanation and table 5 for detailed numbers), tracking changes over time.
These show that the share of female wage and salaried workers has increased over the past ten
years. In 2006, 47.9 per cent of working women were in wage and salaried employment compared
with 42.9 per cent ten years earlier. The share of own-account workers increased from 22.4 per cent
in 1996 to 25.7 per cent in 2006 and the share of contributing family workers dropped from 33.2 per
cent to 25.1 per cent during the same period. However, in the poorest regions of the world the share
of female contributing family workers in total employment is still much higher than men’s, with
women less likely to be wage and salaried workers. In sub-Saharan Africa as well as in South East
Asia, four out of ten working women are classified as contributing family workers compared with
two out of ten men. In South Asia, six out of ten working women are classified as contributing
family workers, but again only two out of ten working men have this status. In the Middle East and
North Africa, the proportions are three out of ten women and one out of ten men.
Even though the flexibility when working on their own account can allow women to combine
work and family duties, female own account workers as a share in total female employment is
smaller in all regions than men’s share. But in the two poorest regions in the world, more women
work as own-account workers than as wage and salaried workers. In sub-Saharan Africa, four out of
ten women work as own-account workers and only two out of ten work as wage and salaried
workers. In South Asia, two out of 10 are own-account workers and 1.5 out of ten belong to the
group of wage and salaried workers. In all other regions, more women work as wage and salaried
workers than as own-account workers.
An expected result of economic development would be for people to move from being
contributing family workers and own-account workers to wage and salaried employment. Ideally
women should profit from this trend as much as men. A look at one of the fastest developing
regions – East Asia – shows that women do profit, with the share of women working as contributing
family workers dropping by 18 percentage points from 38.8 per cent in 1996 to 20.9 per cent in
2006. At the same time, the share in wage and salaried employment rose by 9.5 percentage points
and the share in own-account work went up by 8.7 percentage points. In parallel, there was a
substantial decline in the proportion of women employed in agriculture and an increase in the
9 For more details on this indicator see http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=Data/Trends.htm and
http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/GMIS/gdmis.do?siteId=2&contentId=Content_t11&menuId=LNAV01HOME1.#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
11 Global Employment Trends for Women
percentage working in industry and services. Men followed the same pattern, but the increase in
wage and salaried work was smaller, as was the increase in own-account work.
While status per se does not necessarily shed light on quality of jobs, contributing family
workers and own-account workers are less likely to work in decent conditions. Research comparing
figures on the working poor and employment status showed a very strong correlation between the
total number of people classified as contributing family workers and own-account workers and the
number of working poor at the US$2 a day level. The poorer the region, the stronger this correlation
was. This underlines the inadequate working conditions of these status groups in poor countries.
In summary, the status of women in the world of work has improved, but gains have been
slow. While women have slightly closed the status gap with men, the sluggish pace of change
means that disparities remain significant.
Box 5
Women and status
The indicator of status in employment distinguishes between types of employment by dividing people
into three categories. These are wage and salaried workers (also known as employees); self employed workers;
contributing family workers (also known as family workers).
For the first time this report gives regional estimates of the employment status of men and women. This
indicator can contribute to a better understanding of labour markets. It provides information on the distribution
of the workforce by status in employment and can be used to asses the proportion of employed persons in a
country who (a) work for wages or salaries; (b) run their own enterprises, with or without hired labour; or (c)
work without pay within the family unit. According to the International Classification of Status in Employment
(ICSE), the basic criteria used to define the status groups are the types of economic risk that they face in their
work, an element of which is the strength of institutional attachment between the person and the job, and the type
of authority over establishment and other workers that the job-holder has or will have as an explicit or implicit
result of the employment contract.
Employment status may be used to evaluate whether there is increasing informalization of labour markets,
indicated by a decline in numbers of employees with formal working agreements. Companies may try to create
more flexible enterprises to meet fluctuating demand, using temporary labour rather than permanent staff.
Examination of data on numbers of temporary workers in conjunction with this indicator could help determine
whether temporary jobs are crowding out more stable forms of employment.
The indicator is strongly linked to another indicator on employment by sector. For example, economic
growth could be expected to bring a shift in employment from the agricultural sector to industry and services,#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
which in return would be reflected in an increase in the number of wage and salaried workers. In addition, a
shrinking share of employment in agriculture would result in a lower proportion of contributing family workers,
who are often found in rural areas of developing countries.
Source: Key Indicators of the Labour Market 4th Edition, International Labour Organization, Geneva, 2006,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/kilm/
4.3 Continuing wage gap
In the last Global Employment Trends for Women in 2004 it was argued that inadequate data
on wages/earnings for men and women made it difficult to reach conclusions on wage/earnings
inequalities. It was not easy to make comparisons between countries and regions, because wage and
earning indicators tended to be based on country-specific criteria that were not always comparable.
For example, there were differences regarding the definition of wage rates and earnings, payment
methods, time units (hourly, weekly), data sources and methods of collection.10 Unfortunately this
situation has not changed. Nevertheless, the little evidence that exists shows that wage gaps persist.
A review of data available for six occupation groups shows that in most economies, women still
earn 90 per cent or less of what their male co-workers earn (see figure 4). Even in “typically
female” occupations such as nursing and teaching, gender wage equality is lacking.
10 For more details see Corley, M, Perardel, Y and Popova, K, “Wage inequality by gender and occupation: A crosscountry
analysis”, Employment Strategy Paper 20/2005, ILO, Geneva, 2005,
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/download/esp2005-20.pdf.
12 Global Employment Trends for Women
Historically, there was greater wage equality in the planned economies of Central Eastern
Europe and the CIS than in industrialized or developing economies. This has remained the case in
recent years. For example, the female wages of accountants, computer programmers, teachers and
nurses in transition economies were actually higher than male wages for the latest years with data
available (see figure 4). It will be interesting to see if this trend continues or if it reflects the fact
that a few women have successfully managed the transition process, but after their retirement, wage
gaps reflect trends in industrialized economies.
The European Commission11 recently published findings showing that the pay gap between
men and women has remained virtually unchanged at 15 per cent across all sectors in recent years.
The weak performance of women’s wages has been attributed to slower economic growth in the EU
and, in particular, worsening labour market conditions in the new Member States. In addition, even
in many European countries, women are still disproportionately employed in sectors where#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
wages/earnings are lower and have been declining. For example, in the United Kingdom, 60 per
cent of women workers are found in ten occupations, with the majority concentrated in “the five
Cs”: caring, cashiering, catering, cleaning and clerical. Many of these jobs are in smaller nonunionized
firms, where women have less bargaining power and less possibility to improve their
economic situation vis-à-vis their male counterparts.
Figure 4
Average female wages/earnings as percentage of male wages/earnings in selected
occupations, latest available year
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Accountant Computer
programmer
First-level
education teacher
Hotel receptionist Labourer Professional
nurse (general)
Industrialized economies
Central and Eastern Europe and CIS
Developing economies
Note: Average in this chart denotes a basic average of the countries with available data.
Source: ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market, 4th Edition (Geneva, 2005), tables 16a and 16b.
Corley (2005, op.cit.) found that wage inequality is found in high-skill occupations, even
though applicants in fields such as accounting and computer programming presumably have
comparable education and training. Even in these occupations the average female wage is still only
88 per cent of the male wage. It was shown that countries with a higher relative gender wage gap in
low-skilled occupations also had a high gender gap in high-skilled occupations. Nonetheless, in
11 European Commission, “On Equality between Women and Men”, Brussels, 2005.
13 Global Employment Trends for Women
most countries the wage gap was wider in low-skilled than in high-skilled occupations. In addition,
in a number of countries the gap was shown to be increasing. This study was based mainly on data
from industrialized countries.
A study by Oostendorp12 focuses on the impact of globalization on wages from a gender
perspective. Using the October Inquiry database of the ILO he finds that in low-skilled occupations
where women are generally more highly represented, globalization has helped to improve wages
vis-à-vis their male counterparts. At the same time, because there are significant gender gaps in
human capital within high-skilled occupations in developing economies, growing demand for such
skills due to globalization disproportionately favours male workers, leading to a widening of the
wage gap in this category of workers.
In summary, gender pay gaps still exist across all occupations and there is no clear trend that
they are narrowing.
5. Conclusions
The findings of this year’s Global Employment Trends for Women are only partly
encouraging. The assumption that in the process of socio-economic development women#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
increasingly enter modern sector, permanent, full-time wage employment does not hold – at least
not for all regions. Increases in labour force participation so far have not always been matched by
improvements in job quality, and working conditions of women have not led to true social and
economic empowerment, especially in the world’s poor regions.
Women have more difficulties not only in participating in labour markets but also in finding
decent and productive work. Women are still less likely to be in regular wage and salaried
employment. In addition, the female share of contributing family workers exceeds the male rate in
all regions of the world. In economies with large agricultural sectors, women work more often in
this sector than men. Women’s share of employment in the services sector also exceeds that of men.
Additionally, women are more likely to earn less than men for the same type of work, even in
traditionally female occupations.
All these findings point to the greater vulnerability of women in the world of work. It is
therefore very likely that women are disproportionately affected by working poverty – they work
but do not earn enough to lift themselves and their families above the US $1 a day line. The results
are consistent with the estimates made in the last Global Employment Trends for Women (2004)
that women make up at least 60 per cent of the world’s working poor. There is no reason to believe
that this situation has changed considerably.
Creating adequate decent and productive work for women is possible, as shown by some of
the progress detailed above. But policy-makers not only need to place employment at the centre of
social and economic policies, they also have to recognize that the challenges faced by women in the
world of work require intervention tailored to specific needs. Women must be given the chance to
work themselves and their families out of poverty through creation of decent employment
opportunities that help them secure productive and remunerative work in conditions of freedom,
security and human dignity. Otherwise the process of feminization of poverty will continue and be
passed on to the next generation.
12 Oostendorp, R.H, “Globalization and the Gender Wage Gap”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3256,
Washington, D.C., 2004.
14 Global Employment Trends for Women
Annex 1
Table 1
Global labour market indicators, 1996 and 2006
Female Male Total
1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
Labour force (millions) 1052.0 1238.9 1592.2 1852.0 2644.2 3090.9
Employment (millions) 985.4 1157.1 1497.5 1738.6 2482.8 2895.7
Unemployment (millions) 66.7 81.8 94.7 113.4 161.4 195.2
Labour force participation rate (%) 53.0 52.4 80.5 78.8 66.7 65.5
Employment-to-population ratio (%) 49.6 48.9 75.7 74.0 62.6 61.4#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
Unemployment rate (%) 6.3 6.6 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.3
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Table 2
Male and female labour force participation rates (%)
and the gender gap in economically active females per 100 males, 2006
Female LFPR
(%)
Male LFPR
(%)
Gender gap in
economically active
females per 100 males
World 52.4 78.8 66.9
Developed Economies 52.7 68.8 81.4
Transition Economies 49.4 68.7 81.0
East Asia 66.8 81.4 79.3
South-East Asia 58.9 82.8 72.7
South Asia 36.0 82.2 41.8
Latin America and the Caribbean 52.4 79.4 69.5
Middle East and North Africa 29.5 77.3 36.7
Sub-Saharan Africa 62.8 85.9 74.8
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
Table 3
Male and female employment-to-population ratios
and unemployment rates 1996 and 2006
Female
employment-topopulation
ratio
(%)
Male
employment-topopulation
ratio
(%)
Female
unemployment
rate (%)
Male
unemployment
rate (%)
1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 49.6 48.9 75.7 74.0 6.3 6.6 5.9 6.1
Developed Economies and European Union 46.6 49.2 65.8 64.7 8.4 6.6 7.3 5.9
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 46.4 44.9 64.2 62.2 9.6 9.1 9.7 9.5
East Asia 68.8 64.9 81.1 78.1 3.1 3.0 4.2 4.1
South East Asia and the Pacific 55.3 55.0 80.0 77.4 4.0 6.6 3.6 6.5
South Asia 34.9 33.8 80.6 78.3 4.9 6.2 4.2 4.9
Latin America and the Caribbean 41.5 47.0 76.2 74.3 10.2 10.4 6.5 6.4
Middle East and North Africa 20.4 24.5 68.3 69.3 18.1 17.0 11.5 10.4
Sub-Saharan Africa 58.7 56.8 79.2 77.4 9.0 9.6 9.3 9.9
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
15 Global Employment Trends for Women
Table 4
Male and female share in total employment by sector 1996 and 2006
Employment in
agriculture (%)
Employment in
industry (%)
Employment in
services (%)
Females 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 45.4 40.4 17.4 17.2 37.2 42.4
Developed Economies and European Union 4.3 2.5 16.8 12.4 78.9 85.1
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 25.5 21.6 22.1 19.7 52.4 58.7
East Asia 58.4 52.1 24.0 24.7 17.6 23.3
South East Asia and the Pacific 52.5 47.2 13.7 15.4 33.8 37.3
South Asia 72.6 64.5 12.0 17.7 15.4 17.9
Latin America and the Caribbean 14.0 9.9 14.5 14.3 71.5 75.8
Middle East and North Africa 33.0 39.1 17.7 11.7 49.2 49.2
Sub-Saharan Africa 69.4 64.2 5.8 5.5 24.7 30.3
Males 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 41.6 37.5 23.9 24.0 34.5 38.4
Developed Economies and European Union 5.8 3.7 37.3 33.6 56.9 62.7
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS 26.8 22.4 32.7 34.3 40.5 43.3
East Asia 50.4 45.3 26.2 26.8 23.3 27.9
South East Asia and the Pacific 49.9 46.8 18.3 19.5 31.8 33.6#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
South Asia 53.9 46.4 16.8 19.3 29.3 34.3
Latin America and the Caribbean 28.5 24.7 23.7 23.4 47.9 51.9
Middle East and North Africa 28.8 26.7 22.8 26.5 48.4 46.8
Sub-Saharan Africa 67.0 62.1 11.4 11.3 21.5 26.6
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
16 Global Employment Trends for Women
Table 5
Male and female status of employment 1996 and 2006
Total (%)
Wage and
salaried worker Employers
Own-Account
Workers
Contributing
family workers
Females 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 42.9 47.9 1.5 1.4 22.4 25.7 33.2 25.1
Developed Economies and European
Union 86.7 89.5 3.4 3.0 6.4 5.4 3.5 2.1
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and
CIS 78.5 79.0 0.5 0.8 10.2 12.4 10.8 7.8
East Asia 31.4 40.8 1.1 0.8 28.7 37.4 38.8 20.9
South East Asia and the Pacific 28.8 34.9 1.0 1.0 22.9 27.1 47.2 37.1
South Asia 10.3 15.3 0.5 0.4 16.3 21.7 72.8 62.6
Latin America and the Caribbean 66.6 67.5 2.0 1.7 24.2 25.6 7.2 5.1
Middle East and North Africa 47.5 56.2 2.4 4.1 17.1 11.3 33.0 28.4
Sub-Saharan Africa 13.8 17.0 1.1 1.4 49.0 42.3 36.2 39.3
Males 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006
World 45.7 49.2 3.8 3.3 34.7 35.9 15.8 11.6
Developed Economies and European
Union 81.9 83.1 6.9 6.9 10.2 9.3 1.0 0.7
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and
CIS 76.5 76.2 2.6 2.9 15.8 17.5 5.1 3.4
East Asia 42.1 48.7 2.9 1.5 34.7 37.0 20.4 12.8
South East Asia and the Pacific 37.6 41.4 3.1 2.6 41.2 41.4 18.1 14.6
South Asia 19.5 27.2 2.3 1.4 55.8 55.2 22.4 16.2
Latin America and the Caribbean 59.3 60.7 5.0 4.4 29.5 31.1 6.2 3.7
Middle East and North Africa 52.2 55.4 9.7 11.4 23.4 21.2 14.7 11.9
Sub-Saharan Africa 26.8 29.5 2.7 2.7 43.6 44.4 27.0 23.3
Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2006.
17 Global Employment Trends for Women
Annex 2. Key regional labour market indicators for women and issues
for consideration
The following tables present the most current labour market indicators for women and offer a general
assessment of the most pressing issues in each region.13 These tables can be used as a starting point for
policy makers and international agencies as indication of the true challenges that need to be focused on
regarding women. The variations of indicator results and issues for consideration presented in each regional
table are a reminder that it is better to discuss female labour market trends on the regional level rather than
the global level.
Developed Economies and European Union
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 52.7%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 49.2%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.6%
· Female share of total employment: 44.7%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 2.5% / 12.4% / 85.1%#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried
workers (89.5%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates:
-16.1 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age population: 51.5%
· Fertility rate below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 2.1%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: high
Some issues for consideration
· Job quality, contracts, hours of work
· Balancing flexibility with security
· Gender wage gaps
· Declining employment content of growth
Central and Eastern Europe (non-EU) and CIS
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 49.4%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 44.9%
· Female unemployment rate: 9.1%
· Female share of total employment: 44.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 21.6% / 19.7% / 58.7%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(79.0%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
19.3 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 53.0%
· Fertility rate below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-2006: 6.1%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.1%, US$2 a day 10.5%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 1.5%, US$2 a day 7.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
weak
Some issues for consideration
· High numbers of women who are not employed
· Discouragement
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Managing external migration – brain drain
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Balancing flexibility with security
· Child labour
13 Unless otherwise stated data are for 2006. It is important to bear in mind when reviewing this table that the regional assessments
mask a great deal of regional variation and readers should be wary of assuming a particularly country “fits” perfectly all of the
characterizations defined.
18 Global Employment Trends for Women
East Asia
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 66.8%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 64.9%
· Female unemployment rate: 3.0%
· Female share of total employment: 44.5%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 52.1% / 24.7% / 23.3%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
(40.8%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
14.5 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 49.1%
· Fertility rate slightly below replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 8.6%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 12.1%, US$2 a day 44.2%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 10.1%, US$2 a day 36.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: high
Some issues for consideration
· Job quality – social protection, social dialogue, hours of work
· Inequity in rural and urban development
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Job security in small and medium enterprises
· Child labour
South East Asia and the Pacific
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 58.9%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 55.0%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.6%
· Female share of total employment: 42.1%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 47.2% / 15.4% / 37.3%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Contributing family workers
(37.1%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
23.9 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 50.5%
· Fertility rate above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 5.1%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 11.1%, US$2 a day 56.9%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 8.9%, US$2 a day 44.2%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
low
Some issues for consideration
· Invisible underemployment base on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Formal sector growth
· Child labour
19 Global Employment Trends for Women
South Asia
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 36.0%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 33.8%
· Female unemployment rate: 6.2%
· Female share of total employment: 29.2%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 64.5% / 17.7% / 17.9%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Contributing family workers
(62.6%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates:#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
46.2 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 48.8%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 6.2%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 34.4%, US$2 a day 87.2%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 25.6%, US$2 a day 75.0%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
low
Some issues for consideration
· Graduate unemployment
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Barriers to labour market entry high for young females
· Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Investment and job creation
· High poverty
· Formal sector growth
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Child labour
Latin America and the Caribbean
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 52.4%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 47.0%
· Female unemployment rate: 10.4%
· Female share of total employment: 39.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 9.9% / 14.3% / 75.8% of
total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers
(67.5%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
27.0 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 51.3%
· Fertility rate slightly above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 1.5%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 11.3%, US$2 a day 30.9%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 8.8%, US$2 a day 23.3%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium
Some issues for consideration
· Barriers to labour market entry high for young women
· Improving education enrolment rates and education system
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Formal sector growth
· Improving education enrolment rates
· Job quality
· Child labour
20 Global Employment Trends for Women
Middle East and North Africa
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 29.5%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 24.5%
· Female unemployment rate: 17.0%
· Female share of total employment: 25.4%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 39.1% / 11.7% / 49.2%
of total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Wage and salaried workers#p#分頁標(biāo)題#e#
(56.2%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
47.8 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 49.1%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 5.0%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.8%, US$2 a day 34.7%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 2.1%, US$2 a day 23.7%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: medium to
high
Some issues for consideration
· Barriers to labour market entry high for all females
· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· Stagnant income poverty
· Graduate unemployment
· Job quality
· Managing external and internal migration
· Investment and job creation
· Informal job search / hiring networks
· Civil conflicts
· Child labour
Sub-Saharan Africa
Indicators
Labour market indicators
· Female labour force participation rate: 62.8%
· Female employment-to-population ratio: 56.8%
· Female unemployment rate: 9.6%
· Female share of total employment: 42.9%
· Women in agriculture/industry/services: 64.2% / 5.5% / 30.3% of
total female employment
· Main status of female employment: Own account workers (42.3%)
· Gap between female and male labour force participation rates: -
23.1 percentage points
Demographics
· Share of women in working-age pop: 50.6%
· Fertility rate high above replacement level
Other
· Average GDP growth rate 2001-06: 4.6%
· Working poverty rates: US$1 a day 55.4%, US$2 a day 86.3%
· Poverty rates: US$1 a day 46.1%, US$2 a day 73.8%
· Educational enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels: low
Some issues for consideration
http://www.ttc-switch.com/dissertation_writing/· Invisible underemployment based on skills mismatch, namely women taking jobs that do not make use of their skills
· High poverty
· Civil conflicts, child soldiers
· Improving education enrolment rates and education system
· Nutrition and disease, including HIV-AIDS
·http://www.ttc-switch.com/dissertation_writing/ Improving job quality in the agricultural sector and development within the rural non-farm sector
· Encouraging investment and job creation
· Managing external and internal (rural to urban) migration
· Formal sector growth
· Improving infrastructure
· Child labour