美國dissertation網提供美國社會學dissertation，美國社會學dissertation范文格式，美國留學生社會學dissertation定制服務。本文是關于美國移民的跨文化關系及其沒感性調查測試的社會學研究報告。指出加強移民文化融合（Strengthening Intergenerational/Intercultural Ties in Immigrant Families）的必要性。Strengthening Intergenerational/Intercultural Ties in Immigrant Families (SITIF): Testing a Culturally-Sensitive,Community-Based Intervention with Chinese American Parents

ABSTRACT. Intergenerational/intercultural conflict is a significantstressor in immigrant families that occurs because of differential acculturationbetween migrant parents and their children. In spite of its negativemental health consequences, few empirically tested interventionsaddress this problem. Strengthening Intergenerational/Intercultural Tiesin Immigrant Families (SITIF) is a culturally-sensitive, communitybased intervention that aims to strengthen the intergenerational relationship.
It promotes immigrant parents’ emotional awareness and empathyfor their children’s experiences, cognitive knowledge and understandingof differences between their native and American cultures, and teachesbehavioral parenting skills with the objective of enhancing intergenerational
intimacy. SITIF was tested with a group of 16 middle class andYu-Wen Ying, PhD, is affiliated with the School of Social Welfare, BerkeleyUniversity of California, 120 Haviland Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720 (E-mail: [email protected]).
The author gratefully acknowledges Mei-Mei Ho of Asian Perinatal Advocates forher support of SITIF. Carol Mo, Amy Yu, and Pauline Lo taught the Cantonese classesand assisted with data collection. Sharon Kwan and Yan Liu coded the data, and YoungChoi conducted the data analysis.
The research was partially supported by faculty grants from the University ofCalifornia, Berkeley.working class immigrant Chinese parents. Using objective and subjectiveassessment tools, the findings provide empirical support for SITIF’seffectiveness in enhancing parenting skills and strengthening the intergenerationalrelationship in immigrant Chinese American families. doi:

KEYWORDS. SITIF, intergenerational/intercultural conflict, immigrant families, culturally sensitive intervention, Chinese American immigrants

INTRODUCTION
A quarter of a century ago, Sluzki (1979) identified intergenerationalconflict as a significant problem in immigrant families. Due to developmentalvariation in susceptibility to environmental influences anddifferential opportunities to engage with American culture throughschooling and peers, immigrant and American-born children of immigrantsacculturate more quickly to the United States than their parentswho migrated as adults (Drachman, Kwon-Ahn, & Paulino, 1996;Garcia Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995; Kibria, 1993; Kwak, 2003; Lee,Choe, Kim, & Ngo, 2000; Portes & Rumbaut, 1996; Sluzi, 1979;Ying & Chao, 1996; Ying & Han, under review; Zhou & Bankston,1998). This gap in acculturation has been identified as a key contributorto intergenerational conflict in immigrant families (Buki, Ma, Strom, &#p#分頁標題#e#
Strom, 2003; Lee et al., 2000; Ying & Han, under review; Ying, Lee, &Tsai, 2004; Ying & Tracy, 2004). Thus, Ho (1993) found that, in spiteof Chinese culture’s greater emphasis on intergenerational harmony,first and second generation Chinese American adolescents with immigrant
parents report more intergenerational conflict than their EuropeanAmerican peers from non-immigrant families (Greenberger & Chen,1996). Among children of immigrants, intergenerational conflict is particularlyprominent among adolescents who are at the developmentalstage of separation and individuation from their parents (Garcia Collet al., 1995; Kibria, 1993; Kurtines & Miranda, 1989; Kwak, 2003;
Ying & Chao, 1996; Ying & Han, under review). In particular, conflictis greater among those who migrated by the age of 12 or were born in
the United States compared with those who migrated after age 12 and wereless acculturated to US mainstream culture (Ying, Lee, Tsai, Lee,&Tsang,
66 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES2001), greater among those from working than middle class families
(Lee et al., 2000), and greater among girls than boys (Chung, 2001;Rumbaut, 1996). It is also possible that the degree of intergenerationalconflict differs by the pathway of adaptation employed by children ofimmigrants who assimilate to varying segments of American society–white middle class, the inner city underclass, or solidarity with theethnic community (Portes & Zhou, 1993; Waters, 1994; Zhou, 1997).
In spite of the significant research that documents intergenerationalconflict in immigrant families, very few interventions are available to
ameliorate this problem. A notable exception is the series of interventionsdeveloped by Szapocznik and his colleagues (1997) which will be
discussed later. The current study contributes to the intervention literaturefor immigrant families by testing a culturally-sensitive, community-
based intervention, Strengthening Intergenerational/InterculturalTies in Immigrant Families (SITIF), with Chinese American parents.
The significance of intergenerational/intercultural conflict in immigrantfamilies is presented in the next few paragraphs, followed by a descriptionof SITIF and an empirical study that assesses its utility in middleand working class Chinese American immigrants.Significance of Intergenerational/Intercultural Conflictin Immigrant FamiliesIntergenerational/intercultural conflict in immigrant families is asignificant problem for a number of reasons. First, it is the sheer size ofthe immigrant population, and the number of individuals potentially affected
by this problem. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, immigrantscomprised 12% of the American population and number 32.5 million
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). In the state of California, where SITIF wasdeveloped, immigrants already comprise over a quarter of the population
(Hendricks, 2002). Unlike a century ago, the majority of today’simmigrants originate not from Europe but Asia and Latin America (U.S.#p#分頁標題#e#
Census Bureau, 2003). Consequently, over half of Latino and 88% ofAsian children nationwide are growing up in immigrant households
(Zhou, 1997). Altogether, 20% of American youth have at least one parentwho is non-native born (Capps, Fix, Ost, Reardon-Anderson,&Passel,2004), and are at risk of experiencing intergenerational/interculturalconflict.
Second, although the prevalence of intergenerational/interculturalconflict in immigrant families is unknown, it is likely to be a common
problem because Asian and Latin American cultural values vary signifi-Yu-Wen Ying 67
cantly from those of the majority culture that American schools and massmedia espouse and promote in children of immigrants. For instance,
while independence and individual uniqueness are valued in mainstreamAmerican culture, Asian and Latin American cultures emphasize interdependenceand interpersonal harmony (Ho, 1993; Sandoval & De LaRoza, 1986). Within the intergenerational relationship, Latin American
and Asian parents are generally more authoritarian than their EuropeanAmerican counterpart. Also, the parent-child bond is more hierarchical
and lifelong in Latin American and Asian cultures, while it is more egalitarianin European American families where children are expected to
separate and individuate during adolescence (Drachman et al., 1996;Falicov, 1982; Ying, Coombs, & Lee, 1999). Such divergent values are
likely to lead to significant intergenerational incongruence when childrenprogressively acculturate to the host country’s values, attitudes andbehaviors, while parents continue to embrace their home culture. Asnoted earlier, empirical research shows that less acculturated immigrantparents (Buki et al., 2003; Ying & Tracy, 2004) and more acculturatedchildren of immigrants (Kurtines & Miranda, 1989; Lee et al., 2000;
Ying & Han, under review; Ying et al., 2001) report more intergenerational
incongruence. Even when children of immigrants do espousetheir ethnic culture, they may be viewed as “not ethnic enough”
according to parental standards (Ying et al., 1999).
Third, intergenerational/intercultural conflict in immigrant familiesis significant because of the psychological distress it inflicts on bothimmigrant parents and their children (Kwak, 2003). A major motivatorfor migration is the hope for a better life for the next generation. Whilemany of themigration-related challenges, such as culture shock, economic
difficulties, and discrimination, may be anticipated, immigrants rarelyexpect nor prepare for intergenerational/intercultural discord (Ying, 1999,1999a). When it occurs, parents feel dismayed and betrayed (Falicov,
1982; Ying&Chao, 1996). For immigrant parents from Latin Americanand Asian cultures where intimate intergenerational ties is the norm andhighly valued, such conflict may be especially painful (Szapocznik &Truss, 1978). Concurrently, the child of immigrants may feel confused#p#分頁標題#e#
and trapped by the conflicting home and school/societal cultures, andthe inconsistent values and expectations of parents and peers, resultingin depression, anxiety, gang involvement, and academic difficulties andfailure (Adler, Ovando, & Hocevar, 1984; Aldwin & Greenberger, 1987;
Hernandez-Guzman & Sanchez-Sosa, 1996; Rumbaut, 1996; Szapoczniket al., 1997; Ying & Han, under review).
68 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIESStrengthening Intergenerational/Intercultural Ties
in Immigrant Families (SITIF)
SITIF is a community-based educational intervention that aims tostrengthen the intergenerational relationship between immigrant parents
and their school age children and adolescents. SITIF may be usedas a primary or secondary prevention as well as tertiary prevention or
treatment for intergenerational/intercultural conflict in immigrant families.
Informed by Bandura’s social learning theory (1977), SITIF concurrentlytargets parents’ affect, cognition, and behavior which may reciprocallyinfluence one another (Munoz & Ying, 2002). Specifically,through the intervention, parents learn to affectively empathize with theirchild’s perspective, to cognitively understand variation in the ethnic and
American cultures and its impact on their child’s development, values andtheir intergenerational relationship, and to develop effective behavioralparenting skills, all of which promote intergenerational communicationand intimacy and reduce conflict. Additionally, parents are introduced tomethods that may be used to cope with the stresses of parenting andmigration, that are adapted from a course on the prevention of depression(Munoz & Ying, 2002). A detailed instructor’s manual and parentinghandouts for SITIF curriculum ensure fidelity of delivery across
instructors.
A notable characteristic of SITIF is the incorporation of culturallycompetency principles in its development, including awareness of cultural
differences, knowledge of cultural content (such as norms, customs,language, life style, etc.), accurate assessment and differentiationof culture and pathology (i.e., the culture-bound nature of normalityand abnormality), and use of culturally competent interventions (Lum,
1999; Zayas, Torres, Malcolm, & DesRosiers, 1996). Sue and Zane(1987) further specified that the culturally competent clinician achieves
http://www.ttc-switch.com/dissertation_writing/sociology/credibility and effectiveness by sharing the client’s problem conceptualization,means of solution, goal setting, and gift giving.SITIF is grounded in the reality that parenting practices vary acrosscultures (awareness), and intergenerational conflict in immigrant families
occurs partially due to immigrants’ use of parenting methods thatare not supported/sanctioned by American culture. For instance, Latin
American and Asian immigrant parents may prefer commands anddirectives while their children prefer discussion (knowledge of culturaldifference). Furthermore, SITIF assesses intergenerational conflict toresult from intercultural difference, not individual pathology, thereby#p#分頁標題#e#
removing blame from both the parent and the child. Finally, SITIF isa culturally sensitive intervention that employs a familiar, educational
format. It is not presented as a traditional mental health service whichethnic immigrant Americans have been found to under use due to unfamiliarity,misconceptions and stigma (Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi,Zane, 1991; Snowden & Cheung, 1990).
Furthermore, the SITIF curriculum aims to enhance immigrants’ culturalcompetence in parenting their Americanizing children by increasingtheir awareness of cultural differences between them and theirchildren, expanding their knowledge of majority American culture, distinguishingculture and pathology in their assessment of their children(i.e., consider cultural contributions to their behavior), and interveningin a culturally-competent manner (i.e., utilize parenting methods that reflectmajority American values). All of these contribute to the ultimategoal of promoting intergenerational understanding and intimacy. Inthe SITIF curriculum, the parents’ awareness of cultural differenceis enhanced affectively through a simulated exercise of cross-culturalencounter, and listening to an adult child of immigrants from theirethnic group share her perspective of the intergenerational relationshipwhile growing up. Discussions about the immigrant and majority
American cultures’ values and norms in general, and specifically withregard to the parent-child relationship, contribute to the parents’ growingknowledge of cultural differences. Building upon theoretical discussionsof acculturation, ethnic identity, child development, parents learnto assess and understand their child’s behavior and the intergenerationalrelationship in the sociocultural contexts of the ethnic and majority
American cultures. Finally, SITIF encourages immigrants to take cultureinto account in their parenting by teaching behavioral parentingskills that incorporate the child’s perspective in problem conceptualization,means of solution, goal setting, and gift giving (Sue & Zane, 1987).
All of these components contribute to strengthen the intergenerationalrelationship.
The parenting skills covered in SITIF were adapted from Bernardand Louise Guerney’s work on filial therapy (1964, 1987) that is groundedin Rogerian client-centered therapy and heavily emphasizes communication.
This matches SITIF’s aim to reduce intergenerational andintercultural conflict, and to enhance communication, understanding andintimacy. The parenting skills covered in SITIF are grounded in mainstream
American cultural values, to which children of immigrants areexposed and acculturate through formal education, peer relations, and massmedia. Immigrant parents are not encouraged to discard ethnically specificparenting methods, but to expand their repertoire of skills. Different
70 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIESskills have different objectives, and, at any given moment, parents areinvited to employ the skills that are mostly likely to yield the desiredoutcome. For example, while immigrant parents may prefer a hierarchical,unidirectional method of communication that is sanctioned by their#p#分頁標題#e#
ethnic culture, their children may prefer a more interactive style that involvesless lecturing andmore active listening. The lattermethod is likelyto elicit communication, mutual understanding, and a more intimate relationship.
All of the methods covered in SITIF focus on parenting process(how to), not specific parenting content (what to). For instance, parentsmay use a skill to facilitate discussion on dating, but they are not advisedon the age at which their child should be allowed to date or whetherarranged marriage is desirable.
While SITIF shares a focus on cognitive understanding of culturaldifferences, intergenerational communication and parenting skills with
the Strengthening Families interventions developed by Jose Szapocznik
and his colleagues for Cuban and other Latino families (Szapocznik
et al., 1997), it is intended as a generic intervention to be used with
immigrant parents from any country of origin. While this claim remains
to be empirically demonstrated, the curriculum does not make reference
to any particular immigrant group, but is deliberately flexible for use
with any ethnic group. For example, ethnic fairy tales are employed to
illustrate ethnic norms and values in contrast to American cultural values.
While the choice of fairy tale varies by immigrant groups, the principle
that they exemplify cultural teaching and values remains the same
(Greenbaum & Holmes, 1983). In contrast, Strengthening Families
is intended specifically for use with Latino families, and, therefore,
places heavy emphasis on the prevention and management of risk problems
commonly found among Latino adolescents, such as academic
failure, substance abuse, gang involvement, and teenage pregnancy. Thus,
it is unclear whether these interventions are appropriate for immigrant
groups where the children may not evidence externalizing problem
behaviors.
SITIF’s Effectiveness with Chinese American
Immigrant Parents
The current study assesses the use of SITIF with middle and working
class Chinese American immigrant parents. Chinese Americans number
2.7 million and comprise the largest Asian ethnic group in the United
States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003a). Furthermore, two-thirds of Chinese
Americans are immigrants (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003a). Previous
Yu-Wen Ying 71
research assessed SITIF’s effectiveness in middle class Chinese American
immigrant parents using standardized, quantitative measures and found
it to enhance parenting efficacy and responsibility, sense of coherence,
and overall quality of the intergenerational relationship (Ying, 1999,
1999a). However, like the general Asian American population, the
Chinese population in the United States is quite diverse. While the 2000
Census data for specific Asian ethnic groups are not yet available,
across all Asians, the median income is over $55,000 but 10.7% of them#p#分頁標題#e#
live below the poverty line (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003a). In light of
this heterogeneity, it is important to test SITIF’s effectiveness across a
diversity of parents. In response to working class parents’ difficulty in
completing standardized, quantitative baseline measures that were verbally
administered to them in Chinese, a problem that has been documented
in previous research with unacculturated Asian Americans
(Yu & Zhang, 1987), the current study utilizes non-standardized, openended
measures to assess SITIF’s effectiveness.
Four major research questions were posed as follows: First, do parents
engage in SITIF; second, do parents demonstrate objective mastery
over the SITIF curriculum and does this vary by level of engagement;
third, does SITIF enhance effective parenting practices and strengthen
the intergenerational relationship based on subjective report; and
fourth, is objective mastery positively associated with subjective evaluation
of the course? Furthermore, across all questions, variation by socioeconomic
status is assessed.
With regard to the first research question, in order to benefit from
SITIF, parents must first engage and participate in the intervention.
As the literature has repeatedly documented location and hours of operation
as potential barriers to ethnic minorities’ use of social services
(Snowden & Cheung, 1990; Sue et al., 1991), SITIF is offered at familiar
and centrally located community agencies (e.g., that are situated in
Chinatown) and at times convenient for the parents (e.g., concurrent
美國留學生社會學dissertation定制with their children attending Chinese language school). Engagement
with the intervention is operationalized primarily by attendance and
secondarily by homework completion. The second question examines
retention of SITIF’s content, a method commonly in educational settings
to assess mastery of the curriculum. Specifically, parents are asked
to respond to questions regarding concepts/techniques covered in class.
It is expected that greater engagement would be associated with greater
retention of content. The third question assesses the intervention’s
utility via participants’ subjective report of desired behavioral change
(Rubin & Babbie, 2005). Specifically, they are asked to provide an overall
72 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
assessment of SITIF, and to report post-intervention changes in parenting
method and the intergenerational relationship. Finally, it is expected
that objective mastery of the curriculum would be associated with subjective
reports of satisfaction. All four questions are assessed for the
whole sample and separately for middle class and working class parents.#p#分頁標題#e#
Compared with working class parents, middle class parents are
likely to have better English skills and enjoy more exposure to majority
American society, and therefore possess more awareness and knowledge
of cultural differences prior to participating in the intervention.
Thus, documenting potential variation by socioeconomic status holds
implications for whether SITIF may be successfully taught to and utilized
by both middle class and working class parents.
METHOD
Sample
Thirty Chinese American parents participated in the study; 16 middle
class, Mandarin-speaking parents and 14 working class, Cantonesespeaking
parents. Membership in the two socioeconomic groups was
defined by education and occupation. Table 1 shows the demographic
background of the whole sample and the two groups. Chi-square tests
were used to assess variation on categorical variables, and independent
t-tests were used to assess difference on continuous variables. The more
conservative two-tailed test was used in all analyses. As anticipated,
middle class parents were significantly better educated than working
class parents (mean = 17.94 years, SD = 2.41 vs. mean = 10.86 years,
SD = 3.51, t = 6.36, df = 22.61, p = .001). They also held higher status
jobs than working class parents, as 62.5% of the former were professionals
compared with none of the latter. Also, almost two-thirds of
the working class parents (64.3%) were homemakers as compared with
6.3% of the middle class parents (Chi-Squared = 18.01, df = 3, p = .001).
The two groups also varied on birth place and age at migration. Middle
class parents were more likely to be born in Taiwan (68.8%) and
working class parents were more likely to be born in China (57.1%;
Chi-Squared = 15.74, df = 3, p = .001). Middle class parents arrived in
the United States at a younger age, most often as graduate students, than
working class parents who migrated at different ages with a wider distribution
(mean = 24.63 years, SD = 3.14, range of 20-30 vs. mean = 32.36
years, SD = 9.20, range of 22-48, t = 3.00, df = 15.64, p = .009). Notably,
Yu-Wen Ying 73
the mean age of arrival among working class parents was significantly
affected by two sets of parents who migrated in their 40s. When the median
age of migration for the two groups is compared (i.e., 24 years for
middle class parents and 27 years for working class parents), the difference
is only three years.
The two groups did not vary on sex, age, ethnic composition of
social network, and mean number of children. Parents with more than
one child were asked to use their oldest child as the target child for
homework assignments and assessment questionnaires. The two groups
did not vary on the target child’s sex and age. Of the participants, 83.3%
were female, with a mean age of 41.97 years (SD = 7.08). Most reported#p#分頁標題#e#
74 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
TABLE 1. Demographic Characteristics
All
(n = 30)
Middle Class
(n = 16)
Working Class
(n = 14)
Mean education (SD)*** 14.63 (4.63) 17.94 (2.41) 10.86 (3.51)
Occupation (%)***
Professional 33.3 62.5 00.0
Business 20.0 25 14.3
Clerical 13.3 6.3 21.4
Homemaker 33.3 6.3 64.3
Sex (%)
Female 83.3 81.3 85.7
Mean age (SD) 41.97 (7.08) 42.0 (5.93) 41.93 (8.43)
Birth place (%)***
Taiwan 36.7 68.8 00.0
China 33.3 12.5 57.1
Hong Kong 16.7 12.5 21.4
Other 13.3 6.3 21.4
Mean age at migration (SD)** 28.23 (7.64) 24.63 (3.14) 32.36 (9.20)
Ethnicity composition
of social network (%)
Chinese immigrants 70.0 81.3 57.1
Mixed 30.0 18.8 42.9
Mean number of children
(SD)
1.90 (.62) 1.88 (.72) 1.92 (.49)
Target child’s sex (%)
Male 40.0 31.3 50.0
Target child’s mean age (SD) 12.50 (6.51) 11 (4.21) 14.21(8.26)
Significant group differences at *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001, two-tailed tests.
their social network to be comprised of other Chinese immigrants
(70%), while the rest had a mix of American-born and overseas-born
Chinese friends and/or other Asian friends. On average, the parents had
1.9 children (SD = .62), with their oldest (or target) child being 12.5
years old (SD = 6.51), and 40% of these were male.
Procedure
Consistent with the dialect preference among Chinese Americans,
the middle class parents received the intervention in Mandarin Chinese
while the working class parents received the intervention in Cantonese
Chinese. The 16 middle class parents were recruited at a presentation on
intergenerational conflict held at a Mandarin Chinese language school,
while the 14 working class parents were recruited by flyers in Chinatown,
radio announcements on a Cantonese Chinese community radio
talk show, and word of mouth. Upon giving written consent for participation
in the evaluation study, parents completed the demographics
questionnaire. They then attended the SITIF course. At the last session,
parents completed a course evaluation, upon which this report is based.
All classes were held in communities with a high Chinese concentration
(areas known as Chinatown), but in two different Northern California
cities. The Mandarin-speaking classes were held at a Mandarin Chinese
language school on Saturday mornings, while the participants’ children
attended Chinese classes. These classes were closed to newcomers once
they began.Mandarin-speaking parents paid $80 in tuition. TheCantonesespeaking
classeswere held at a social service agency on aweekdaymorning,
and were offered free of charge. Consistent with the sponsoring
agency’s policy, eight parents who missed the first meeting but dropped#p#分頁標題#e#
in intermittently were accommodated. On average, they attended 2.88
classes (SD = 1.36) but did not sign consent forms nor participate in the
evaluation study.
A total of four classes were offered: two for middle class parents and
two for working class parents. Each class consisted of two-hours per
week meetings over eight weeks. Detailed class outlines for each class
were distributed, and parents were given weekly homework assignments
to assist mastery of class content. The course and all measures were administered
entirely in Chinese (regardless of spoken dialect, written
Chinese remains essentially the same). Consistent with the participants’
native and preferred language, middle class parents were taught in Mandarin
by the investigator, a native Mandarin speaking, doctoral level clinical
psychologist, and working class parents were taught in Cantonese
Yu-Wen Ying 75
by two native Cantonese speaking, bachelor level mental health workers
who were trained by the investigator and had significant experience
serving this population. The use of mental health workers as instructor
ensured broad applicability of the intervention (Rounsaville, Carroll, &
Onken, 2001). As all instructors followed the same detailed instructor
outlines, all parents received the same intervention.
Measures
Two written measures were administered: The Demographics Questionnaire
and the SITIF Evaluation Form. The Demographic Questionnaire
assessed background information, including education, occupation,
sex, age, birthplace, mean at age migration, ethnic composition of social
network, number of children, and target child’s sex and age. Parents
with more than one child were asked to use their oldest child as the target
child, on whom to practice parenting skills as part of their homework
assignments. Engagement with SITIF was measured primarily
by attendance and secondarily by completion of homework each week,
as recorded by the instructor. Seven sets of homework were assigned
over the course of the 8-week intervention.
Objective Mastery over the SITIF Curriculum was assessed on the
SITIF Evaluation Form by 4 domains: awareness/knowledge of cultural
difference, rationale/objective of behavioral skills, implementation of
skills, and coping with stress. Awareness/Knowledge was assessed by a
set of five questions: (1) Why does intergenerational/intercultural gap
occur in immigrant families? (2) How may immigrant parents learn
about differences between Chinese and American cultures? (3) How may
immigrant parents participate in the various contexts of their child’s
life? (4) How may parents assist their children who grow up in the U.S.
with a positive Chinese American identity? (5) How may immigrants
serve as culturally competent Chinese American models to their children?#p#分頁標題#e#
Responses to each item was coded as correct “1” or incorrect “0,”
which were added up to yield a range of possible scores from 0 to 5. Rationale/
Objective of Behavioral Parenting Skills was assessed by a set
of seven questions that inquired about the aim of skills covered in
SITIF: (1) Showing Understanding, (2) Parent’s Message, (3) Structure,
(4) Reward, (5) Rules and Limits, (6) Punishment, and (7) Special
Time. A sample item was, “What is the rationale/objective of Showing
Understanding?” Responses to each item were coded as correct “1” or
incorrect “0,” which were added up to yield sum scores ranging from
0 to 7. Implementation of Behavioral Parenting Skills assessed the
76 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
procedure of implementing the above-mentioned seven skills.A sample
item was: “How do you Show Understanding to your child?” The implementation
of these skills often involved several steps. As all parents
could refer to handouts for details, they were not expected to memorize
all the steps. Instead, responses that correctly identified one key step
were coded “1.” The others were coded “0.” Summing their responses
to seven items, the range of possible scores was from 0 to 7. Finally,
Coping with Stress was assessed by the question: How may parents
reduce their stress level? While three methods were covered in SITIF:
Deep Breathing, Pleasant Activities, and Social Activities, parents were
encouraged to choose one or more methods they most enjoyed. Thus,
parents who provided at least one of the three methods were coded
as “1,” and the remainder was coded “0.”
Subjective Evaluation of SITIF’s Effectiveness was assessed by both
close- and open-ended questions on the SITIF Evaluation Form. The
effectiveness score was derived from the responses to seven statements:
(1) This course increased my understanding of differences in Chinese
and American cultures; (2) This course increased my ability to be a competent
Chinese American; (3) This course increased my understanding
of my child; (4) This course increased my ability to parent my child; (5)
This course increased my communication with my child; (6) This
course increased my participation in the various contexts of my child’s
life; and (7) This course increased my connection with my child. They
were rated on a 5-point Likert type scale, with “1” indicating complete
disagreement, “3” indicating neutrality, and “5” indicating complete
agreement. The overall effectiveness rating was derived from the mean
of the 7 items. Alpha internal reliability of the parenting competence
scale was .86 for the whole sample, .87 for the middle class sample, and#p#分頁標題#e#
.84 for the working class sample. Furthermore, parents responded to
five open-ended questions that assessed the SITIF’s effectiveness–as a
result of taking this course, (1) How did you change personally? (2) How
did you change in the way you parent? (3) What was the most helpful topic
we covered? (4) What was the least helpful topic we covered? (5) How
did your relationship with your child change?
Based on the curriculum, the researcher developed a code book for
the open-ended questions. Two masters level social work students were
trained in its use, and independently coded the open-ended responses.
One of the coders was a native Mandarin speaker, and the other was a
native Cantonese speaker who was also fluent in Mandarin. Overall
inter-rater reliability was 91.8%. Differences were reconciled through
discussion.
Yu-Wen Ying 77
RESULTS
Engagement with SITIF
Parents’ engagement with SITIF was assessed primarily by attendance
and secondarily by homework completion. Unless otherwise indicated,
independent t-tests were used to assess variation between working
and middle class parents across all questions. Two-tailed tailed tests
were used. Attendance was very high, since out of the 8 class meetings,
middle class Mandarin-speaking parents attended an average of 7.5
sessions (SD = .82), and working class, Cantonese-speaking parents
attended an average of 6.36 (SD = 1.08) sessions. Although working
class parents attended significantly fewer classes (t = 3.29, df = 28,
p = .003), on average, they still attended 80% of the intervention. Thus,
both groups of parents engaged significantly with the intervention.
With regard to homework completion, middle class parents completed,
on average, 6.19 (SD = 1.22) out of 7 sets of homework, again
evidencing significant engagement. They wrote their homework and
submitted each completed assignment to the instructor for feedback. In
contrast, due to lower educational level, working class parents expressed
difficulty with writing their homework. Instead, they were encouraged
to implement them and report their experience in class verbally.
On average, they partially completed about half of the assignments, that is,
3.36 (SD = 2.84) sets. The two groups varied significantly in homework
completion, t = 3.45, df = 17.16, p = .003.
Objective Mastery of the SITIF Curriculum
To determine objective mastery of the SITIF curriculum, four domains
were assessed: (1) Awareness/knowledge, (2) rationale/objective
of behavioral parenting skills, (3) implementation of skills, and (4) coping
with stress. On average, parents provided 80% correct responses to
the Awareness/Knowledge questions. On the five questions, middle class
parents gave, on average, 4.44 (SD = .51, or 88.8%) correct responses#p#分頁標題#e#
and working class parents gave, on average, 3.79 (SD = 1.05 or 75.8%)
correct responses (see Table 2). The former significantly outperformed
the latter (t = 2.11, df = 12.28, p = .05). Pearson’s correlation tests
were used to assess association between number of responses given
and attendance/homework completion. Greater mastery was associated
with attendance (r = .55, p = .002) and homework completion (r = .48,
p = .007). Significant differences on individual items were not found.
78 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
Mastery of Rationale/Objective of Behavioral Parenting Skills was
assessed using 7-items, and parents gave an average of 63.33% correct
answers. Middle class parents provided 5.06 (SD = 1.29 or 72.29%)
correct responses, while working class parents provided 3.57 (SD =
1.45 or 51%) correct responses (see Table 2). Again, middle class parents
demonstrated significantly greater mastery (t = 2.98, df = 28,
p = .006). Attendance also improved mastery (r = .43, p = .02). Turning to
specific items, middle class parents were more likely than working class
parents to correctly explain the rationale for Showing Understanding
(87.5% vs. 28.6%, using a Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .002), and Establishing
Structure (62.5% vs. 14.3%, using a Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .011).
Mastery of Implementation of Behavioral Parenting Skills was assessed
using 7 items. As Table 2 shows, on average, middle class parents
provided 4.50 (SD = 1.37, or 64.28%) correct responses, while
Yu-Wen Ying 79
TABLE 2. Indicators of SITIF’s Effectiveness
All
(n = 30)
Middle Class
(n = 16)
Working Class
(n = 14)
Objective mastery of SITIF
(% correct responses)
Mean (SD) Awareness/Knowledge
(5 items)*
4.13(.86) 4.44(.51) 3.79(1.05)
Mean (SD) Rationale of skills
(7 items)**
4.37(1.54) 5.06(1.29) 3.57(1.45)
Mean (SD) Implementation of
skills (7 items)
4.10(1.77) 4.50(1.37) 3.64(2.10)
Mean (SD) Coping with stress
(1 item)
0.93(.17) 1.00(0) 0.86(.36)
Subjective evaluation of SITIF’s effectiveness
Mean(SD) effectiveness (7 items) 4.73(.34) 4.69(.39) 4.78 (.28)
Percentage reporting
personal change
93.3 100.00 85.70
Percentage reporting
parenting method change
90.00 93.70 85.70
Percentage reporting most
helpful topic
90.00 100.00 78.60
Percentage reporting least
helpful topic
26.70 25.00 28.50
Percentage reporting improved
relationship
96.70 100.00 92.90
Significant group differences at *p  .05, **p  .01, two-tailed tests.
working class parents provided 3.64 (SD = 2.10 or 52%) correct responses.
Altogether, they gave 56.67% correct answers and did not vary
significantly from each other. The number of correct responses increased#p#分頁標題#e#
with attendance (r = .39, p = .03) and homework completion
(r = .38, p = .04). In terms of variation on specific items, more middle
class parents correctly identified a step in Structuring than working
class parents (75% vs. 28.6%, using Fisher’s Exact Test, p = .03).
Coping with Stress was assessed by one item, and 93.33% gave a correct
answer. All of the middle class parents provided at least one correct
method, and working class parents provided, on average, .86 (SD = .36)
correct responses (see Table 2). While the two groups did not vary
significantly, attendance (r = .36, p = .05) and homework completion
(r = .41, p = .02) significantly enhanced mastery.
Subjective Evaluation of SITIF’s Effectiveness
Both middle class and working class parents rated the SITIF as
extremely effective in enhancing their parenting and strengthening their
intergenerational relationship. Using a scale of 1 to 5, the mean effectiveness
rating across the 7 close-ended items was 4.69 (SD = .39) for
middle class parents and 4.78 (SD = .28) for working class parents (see
Table 2). The ratings did not vary by socioeconomic status/language
group, nor engagement (attendance and homework completion). Clearly,
the parents found SITIF to be highly effective in enhancing their
parenting ability and intergenerational relationship.
Subjective evaluation of effectiveness was also assessed by seven
open-ended items, to which multiple, acceptable answers could be
given. With regard to personal change, 93.3% reported at least one such
change consequent to the course (see Table 2): 40% of the parents were
more attentive and willing to consider perspectives other than their
own, 70% became better communicators, 13.3% were more aware of
Chinese and American cultural differences and/or more accepting of
American culture. On average, parents gave a total of 1.57 (SD = .77)
responses, and middle and working class parents did not differ on content
nor quantity of responses. Number of responses given also did not
vary by engagement with SITIF.
With regard to parenting method, 90% reported at least one change
consequent to taking the course (see Table 2). Specifically, two-thirds
of the parents Showed Understanding to their children (a skill that involved
identifying and reflecting the child’s affect and its cause without
further commentary), and one-third used Rewards instead of Punishment.
80 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
Although middle and working class parents did not vary on content of
their responses, the former provided more responses than the latter
[mean = 1.63 (SD = .62) vs. 1.14 (.66), t = 2.06, p = .05]. Additionally,
the quantity of responses was significantly correlated with attendance
(r = .53, p = .003) and homework completion (r = .37, p = .04).#p#分頁標題#e#
When asked to identify what was most helpful about SITIF, 90%
of the parents gave one or more answers (see Table 2). Specifically,
23.33% cited knowledge (e.g., Chinese and American cultural differences,
child development), and 80% cited parenting skills. On average,
middle class parents provided 2.19 responses (SD = .91) and working
class parents provided 1.21 responses (SD = .80, t = 3.99, d = 28, p = .005).
Parents who attended more classes gave more responses (r = .37,
p = .04). With regard to the most helpful skills, Showing Understanding
and Special Time (where the parent devotes half an hour to interacting
with the child, following the child’s lead and Showing Understanding)
were cited most often, each by 46.7% of the parents. Middle class
parents were more likely to name Special Time as more helpful than
working class parents (78.6% vs. 21.4%, using a Fisher’s Exact Test,
p = .01). Special Time is a potentially challenging parenting method that
requires the substitution of the Chinese parenting practice of guiding the
child with following the child’s lead continually for a recommended
30-minute period per week. Compared with working class parents, middle
class parents may be more acculturated and therefore more willing
to implement Special Time and to do so correctly. Consequently, they
garnered more benefit.
With regard to what was least helpful, the overwhelming majority of
the parents responded with “Nothing” or “Everything was helpful.” No
differences were found in quantity nor content of responses between the
two socioeconomic groups, nor did the number of responses vary by engagement.
Of the four (or 25%) middle class parents who provided a response,
three explained they were already familiar with Deep Breathing
and child development, and one cited the skills of Structure and Limits.
Among the four working class parents who responded positively (or
28.5%), child development, and the skills of Punishment (presumably
meaning she would use it less now) and Structure were cited as least
helpful. The remaining parent noted Deep Breathing was inadequate to
deal with daily stress.
Finally, with regard to the ultimate objective of the intervention,
that is, change in the intergenerational relationship, as Table 2 shows,
96.7% reported a positive change, describing it as more open, more
Yu-Wen Ying 81
egalitarian, and more intimate than before the intervention. Responses
did not vary by socioeconomic status/language nor engagement.
In sum, after taking the SITIF course, at least 90% of the participants
answered affirmatively to having changed personally, modified their
parenting method, identified at least one aspect of SITIF as particularly
helpful, and improved the intergenerational relationship.#p#分頁標題#e#
Association of and Objective Mastery and Subjective Evaluation of
Effectiveness. Relationship of the four domains of objective assessment
(awareness/knowledge, rationale/objective of behavioral parenting skills,
implementation of behavioral skills, and coping with stress) and subjective
rating of SITIF’s effectiveness was tested using a regression
model, where the former served as the independent variables and the
latter served as the dependent variable, controlling for socioeconomic
status, attendance, and homework completion. The model was not significant
and none of the independent and control variables significantly
predicted subjective ratings of effectiveness.
DISCUSSION
Engagement with SITIF
Measured by attendance, Chinese American parents evidenced significant
engagement, attending 87% of the classes. Although middle
class parents attended more classes than working class parents, the latter
still attended 80% of the sessions. Variation in attendance between
the two groups may be due to several reasons. Foremost, the Mandarinspeaking
classes were offered at the same time and place as their
children’s Chinese language school. In fact, the time and location for
the class were chosen in response to the parents’ request. Parents found
it very convenient to attend the SITIF classes while their children were
attending Chinese school. In contrast, working class parents needed to
make a special trip to attend SITIF classes. As their class was offered on
a weekday morning, the meetings sometimes conflicted with their work
schedule or other commitments. Additionally, middle class parents may
have been more motivated to attend SITIF than working class parents.
First, they had paid a fee to attend. Second, in class and individual discussions,
it was evident that they were less preoccupied with financial
concerns than working class parents. As such, they were free to attend
to their children’s psychological needs and the quality of their relationship.
In order to enhance better attendance, future SITIF classes for
82 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
working class parents should be offered at a time and location of maximum
convenience for them. The need for continued attendance may
be emphasized at an informational meeting prior to the beginning SITIF
course, which was held for middle class parents but not working class
parents. Also, in previous research of community-based interventions,
participants were given a financial incentive for attending more sessions
at the time they received payment for completing the evaluation
(Munoz & Ying, 2002). This is likely to be an effective method to boost
attendance among SITIF participants.
As measured by homework completion, middle class parents demonstrated#p#分頁標題#e#
excellent engagement, as, on average, they implemented and
wrote up more than 6 of the 7 sets of homework. Missing homework was
primarily due to missing class when the assignment was given. Working
class completed less homework than middle class parents. However,
as they attended an average of about 6 classes, and, thus, were
given 5 sets of homework, an average completion rate of 3.36 also
supported their engagement. Modifying the expectation to write the
homework to verbally reporting it reflects SITIF’s sensitivity to a population
less comfortable with paper-pencil tasks.
Objective Mastery of the SITIF Curriculum
All in all, using open-ended questions, parents demonstrated good
mastery over the SITIF curriculum. Open-ended questions are more
difficult than multiple-choice or true/false questions, as parents must
produce answers without relying on any hints. Across the four domains,
parents showed the greatest mastery in the area of Coping with Stress
(93.33% gave a correct response), followed by Awareness and Knowledge
(80% gave correct responses). Performance was weaker on the
two skills domains: 63.33% to Rationale/Objective and 56.67% for Implementation
questions. Given the discrepancy across these four domains,
it appears that devoting three sessions to behavioral parenting
skills may be insufficient. More time is needed to assist solid integration.
Thus, future SITIF classes should be extended to 10 sessions, with
two additional classes allotted to the practice of parenting skills.
Notably, middle-class parents surpassed working class parents in attendance,
homework completion and the number of correct responses
on Awareness/Knowledge and Rationale/Objective of Behavioral Parenting
Skills questions. As attendance and homework completion enhanced
mastery in almost all content areas, implementation of the methods
Yu-Wen Ying 83
proposed earlier may booster attendance and enhance retention of the
curriculum.
Subjective Evaluation of SITIF’s Effectiveness
Using close- and open-ended questions, both middle class and working
class Chinese American parents strongly endorsed SITIF’s relevance
and effectiveness, giving it a 4.73 rating on a 5-point scale. While
it is plausible that responses to close-ended subjective evaluation items
may be biased due to parents’ desire to please the instructor, this is less
likely to be the case for the open-ended items, where parents need to
specify how they were changed by participation in the SITIF class.
More than 90% of the parents described how SITIF changed them personally,
modified their parenting method, identified at least one helpful
component of SITIF, and ultimately improved their intergenerational
relationship. Working class parents provided fewer responses than middle-#p#分頁標題#e#
class parents to “change in parenting method” and “what was most
helpful about SITIF.” As most of the responses given to the latter question
also referred to parenting skills, these differences suggest thatthe
latter retained fewer parenting skills than the former, possibly due to
their lower attendance as discussed earlier.
Association of Objective Mastery and Subjective
Evaluation of Effectiveness
Subjective evaluation of effectiveness and objective mastery of SITIF
were not significantly associated. This was likely to be due to the very limited
variation on the dependent variable, subjective evaluation. However,
the extremely high evaluation ratings provide strong support for the utility
of the SITIF intervention, and its continued testing and refinement.
Study Limitations and Directions for Future Research
The current study demonstrated SITIF’s effectiveness in strengthening
the inter-generational relationship with a diverse group of Chinese
American immigrant parents. Extending the SITIF course to 10 sessions
and improving attendance among working class parents using methods
proposed earlier may further enhance its effectiveness. In future research,
a randomized, controlled design should be used to rule out other
potential contributions to post-intervention changes. The study suffers
84 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES
from the absence of baseline data on parenting and the intergenerational
relationship. These were collected using standardized, quantitative measures
and administered in Chinese. Among middle class parents, these
measures demonstrated significant pre-post intervention improvement
in parenting efficacy and intergenerational relationship (Ying, 1999,
1999a). However, as working class parents expressed significantly difficulties
responding to the questions in spite of individualized assistance
and verbal administration, these were discarded. Future research needs to
utilize measures with simpler wording that reflect Chinese colloquial expressions.
Also, due to small sample size, itwas not possible to assess potential
variation by demographic characteristics other than socioeconomic
status. This should be addressed in future research. Also, assessing change
in the target child and/or the child’s view of the intergenerational relationship
would further support SITIF’s effectiveness. Finally, future studies
should empirically test SITIF’s effectiveness in non-Chinese immigrant
populations. Of particular interest are Latino Americans, who comprise
the largest immigrant group in the United States. In spite of these limitations,
the study makes a significant contribution to the literature on immigrant
families by demonstrating the utility of the newly developed
SITIF in enhancing parenting effectiveness and intergenerational intimacy#p#分頁標題#e#
among a diverse group of Chinese American immigrant parents.
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美國留學生社會學dissertation定制Zhou, M. & Bankston, C. L. III. (1998). Growing up American: How Vietnamese children
adapt to life in the United States. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Received: November 30, 2004
Revised: January 04, 2006
Accepted: January 20, 2006
doi:10.1300/J500v05n02_04
88 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES