References and Bibliographies
References and Bibliographies
Effective
Learning Service
References and
Bibliographies
PREFACE
Academic writing is special in an age of rapid communication. Most assignments in higher education require you to slow the tempo and carefully explore and test out ideas, either for their own sake or in relation to real or hypothetical situations.
This requires you to, not just present and describe ideas, but to be aware of where they came from, who developed them - and why. Ideas, theories, models, practices are often shaped by the social norms, values and practices prevailing at the time and place of their origin and the student in higher education needs to be aware of these influences. Referencing plays a role, therefore, in helping to locate and place ideas and arguments in their historical, social, cultural and geographical contexts.
Referencing can also help you to find your own voice in assignments, by helping you construct essays and reports that project the way you see or perceive things, but supported by a body of evidence that strengthens your opinions - and
converts them into arguments.
Education needs ideas, arguments and perspectives to thrive, but these have to be tested rigorously and subjected to the critical scrutiny of others. This is done by researching, preparing and presenting work into the public domain; a formidable task for any writer or commentator, and one that can take years sometimes to achieve.
Referencing is then, also about respecting and honouring the hard work of writers and commentators – by acknowledging them in your assignments.
Colin Neville
Effective Learning Service
The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management is part of a UK
government funded LearnHigher project, which involves collaboration between
16 UK institutions of higher education.Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
The aim is to develop a resources network to enable students to gain access to high quality learning support material produced by UK universities.
The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management has been selected to develop resources on referencing to share with students. A website on referencing is currently being developed, and a book on this topic: The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism’, by Colin Neville, is due to be launched by The Open University Press in August 2007.
More information can be found on the LearnHigher project at:
REFERENCES and BIBLIOGRAPHIES
It is an expected academic practice that students will refer to (or cite) the
sources of ideas, data and other evidence in written assignments.#p#分頁標題#e#
This is not just practice for tradition’s sake; it is done for valid academic reasons. There are four main reasons related to your academic studies why referencing is
important:
1. to support your arguments and give credibility to the information you present in assignments;
2. to enable your tutors to check the accuracy and validity of the evidence presented;
3. to enable your tutors and other interested readers to trace the sources you cite and to use the same evidence for their own purposes;
4. to avoid the accusation of plagiarism.
As mentioned in the preface, referencing is also a way of acknowledging the hard work that goes into the research, preparation, writing and revision of academic texts. Accurate referencing is also one way of giving indirect thanks to this invisible and invaluable effort and achievement.
More pragmatically, it also shows a tutor you have, at least, read some of the sources listed on a reading list!
And last, but probably not least from a student perspective, accurate and intelligent referencing will enhance a good essay and contribute to the marks you gain. Selection of relevant evidence and accurate referencing is an important element in the marking criterion.
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This booklet will:
¾ explain when to reference;
¾ show you how to reference (using the Harvard Style adopted by the School of
Management);
¾ give examples of different forms of referencing, including some of the less common sources;
¾ include two assignments to demonstrate referencing in action.
However, if you need help in referencing any source in any assignment, you can contact the author of this booklet and Effective Learning Officer for the School: Colin Neville, email: [email protected]
CONTENTS PAGES
Section 1: GENERAL INFORMATION
Difference between references and bibliographies
What to reference When to reference Plagiarism
Types of referencing
Principles of referencing
Harvard Style of referencing
Section 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONSDissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
About citing page numbers
About using secondary sources
Citing an author published more than once in the same year
Citing non-English books
Punctuation and capitalisation in references
Undated sources
When to use multiple citations
Citations, quotations and the word count
Section 3: EXAMPLES OF CITATIONS and REFERENCING#p#分頁標題#e#
Books
Journal articles, magazines, newspapers TV/radio/video/audio-cassette/CD ROM Government publications
Reports
Course manuals/lecture notes
Oral communication: interviews, telephone conversations, lectures
Unpublished sources Standards and Patents Legal documents Cinema and theatre
Electronic sources (Internet, Email and other)
QUIZ
EXAMPLE REPORT (1) EXAMPLE ESSAY (2) ANSWER TO QUIZ ENDNOTE
FURTHER READING and REFERENCES
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SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
‘REFERENCES’ AND A ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY’?
The terms ‘References’ and ‘Bibliography’ are often used synonymously, but there is a difference in meaning between them.
REFERENCES
References are the items you have read and specifically referred to (or cited) in your assignment and your list of sources at the end of the assignment will be headed ‘References’.
If you make a point of reading selectively, you will usually make use of everything you read and then refer directly to it in your assignment.
In that event, it will be perfectly correct to just have a ‘References’ list instead of a ‘Bibliography’; it will certainly not go against you, and many tutors prefer you to just have a references section, rather than a bibliography. This enables them to quickly find in your list of references the source you cited and, if necessary, check the validity of it for themselves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for writing an assignment, whether or not you referred specifically to it in the assignment.
A bibliography will, therefore, normally contain sources that you have cited in your assignment and also those you found to be influential, but decided not to cite. A bibliography can give a tutor an overview of which authors have influenced your ideas and arguments even if you do not specifically refer to them.
However, don’t be tempted to include items you have not read in order to impress the tutor. If you, for example, include an item you haven’t actually read, the
tutor may challenge you why you have not directly referred to a particular author, or apparently not been influenced by their work in your assignment!#p#分頁標題#e#
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WHAT TO REFERENCE
You can cite references taken from a range of sources, e.g.
¾ Internet
¾ Notes supplied, and verbal comments made, by a lecturer
¾ CD databases
¾ Books written by a single-author
¾ Multiple edited books with contributions from a range of different authors
¾ Reference books of all types
¾ Legal documents
¾ Articles from journals
¾ Reports of various kinds, e.g. official reports from government departments, university working papers, etc
¾ Newspaper articles
¾ Papers presented at conferences
¾ Radio/TV/videos/audio cassette/CD Roms
¾ Interview transcripts
¾ Email correspondence
¾ Cinema films and theatre plays
In short, most information that has been written, recorded, filmed or presented in some way to others can potentially be used.
The important thing is to choose reliable sources that give credence, authority and support to the ideas and arguments that you present. Your tutor will suggest a range of reliable sources, and this will be your starting point, but you will also
be expected to look beyond the recommended reading and to search out relevant
information for yourself.
You will find, however, that recommended books and other sources will prove – because of the accurate referencing that has gone into them – to be rich veins of additional information. If you read a particular chapter as a starting point for research into an assignment topic, often the references or bibliography will point you in the right direction of other relevant reading.
WHEN TO REFERENCE
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“To reference or not to reference, that is the question”
You should cite your sources of evidence in assignments in the following situations:
1. To give the reader the source of tables, photos, statistics and diagrams included in your assignment. These may be items directly copied or which have been a source of collation for you
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a particular writer. This would include the names of authors who coined words to label particular phenomena or situations
3. To give weight or credibility to an argument presented by you, or supported by you, in your assignment#p#分頁標題#e#
4. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of agreement and support amongst commentators
5. To inform the reader of sources of direct quotations or definitions in your assignment.
6. When paraphrasing another person’s idea that you feel is particularly significant or likely to be a subject of debate; this can include sources of definitions you use in assignments.
7. … and to avoid plagiarism.
1. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Tables, Photos, Statistics or Diagrams Presented in Your Assignment (either copied in their original form or collated by you)
Example:
In Britain, the proportion of employees on temporary contracts rose only marginally between 1992 and 1998, from 5.9 per cent to 7.4 per cent, and has since fallen to 7.1 per cent in 2000 (Office for National Statistics 2000).
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2. When Describing or Discussing a Theory, Model or Practice
Associated with a Particular Writer
Example:
The term ‘instrumental or operant conditioning’ is associated with the American Psychologist, B.F. Skinner (1956), and describes a process of shaping behaviour by a variety of means that encourage and reinforce desired behaviour, or discourage unwanted behaviour.
3. To Give Weight or Credibility to an Argument Presented in Your
Assignment
Example:
However, it can be argued that the corrosive social effects of workers having to manage increasing workloads outweigh these extrinsic advantages. Handy (1994, p.9), for example, suggests that businesses prefer to recruit “half as many people, paid twice as well and producing three times as much”, with a destructive effect on the social lives of these core workers.
4. When Giving Emphasis to a Particular Idea That Has Found a
Measure of Agreement and Support Amongst Commentators
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Example:
As the behavioural response of communication apprehension (CA) is to avoid or discourage interaction with others it is not surprising that CA has been linked to feelings of loneliness, isolation, low self esteem and the inability to discuss personal problems with managers or others (Daly and Stafford 1984; Mc Croskey, Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977; Mc Croskey and Richmond 1987; Richmond, 1984; Scott and Rockwell 1997).
(Note: The student cites five sources - all much saying the same thing - to emphasise and give credibility to an important point summarised in the assignment. The use of multiple authors can add weight to summary, particularly if the idea is a controversial one. However, citing six authors would be the maximum for this purpose, and citing two or three is a more usual practice).#p#分頁標題#e#
5. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Direct Quotations or
Definitions in Your Assignment
Example:
Pearson (1995) however, argues that a “search for a solution to ethical dilemmas using the methods of moral philosophy has failed” (p.3). He asserts that any approach to business ethics must take full account of the business perspective and an appreciation of business boundaries, albeit with account to the changing nature of these.
(Note: If the quote is taken from a printed book or journal, you always need to include the page number so the reader can go straight to that page to find it. Lengthy quotations (over two lines) should be indented in your assignment. This means you compress the quotation, italicise it and create a one-tab margin that distinguishes it from your own text, as per the example below. You don’t need to use quotation marks in an indented quotation).
Example of indented quotation:
Robert Reich (2001) has argued that pay is proportionate to the skill you offer in the labour market:
If you have been in a job that’s rote or routine…or your job can
be done by computerized machines or by software over the Internet –
you’re likely to be paid less than you used to be paid for doing it…(p.32)
Reich argues that education and training can be the way forward for people trapped in a cycle of low-skill, low-pay jobs.
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USING QUOTATIONS
Try to keep quotations to a minimum in your assignments. They can be used to good effect when:
• you feel they make a particular point.
For example, colloquial language can often be used for contrast and effect in an academic assignment - where the style of writing is necessarily more cautious, formal and detached
• you want to analyse or challenge the quotation in question
• you feel the quotation supports your own
argument or point of view
• you want to add interest or impact to an introduction or conclusion.
6. When Paraphrasing Another Person’s Idea or Definition that You
Feel is Particularly Significant or Likely to be a Subject of Debate
Example:
We all perceive the world around us in ways that are often unique to us through a series of personal filters and we ‘construct’ our own versions of reality (Kelly 1955).
(Note: In this example, the student paraphrases an idea that Kelly
originally outlined in 1955. The inverted commas around ‘construct’ suggest this is a significant word used by Kelly to describe a key concept). By citing the source the student is, in effect, saying ‘this is Kelly’s idea; I am just paraphrasing it’, and thus avoids accusations of plagiarism.#p#分頁標題#e#
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HOWEVER, YOU DON’T NEED TO REFERENCE:
• Information drawn from a variety of sources to summarise what has happened over a period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of dispute or controversy; for example:
The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector, focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector
economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working
practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs, whilst producing a standard branded image to the world.
• When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced earlier in the assignment.
• When stating or summarising generally undisputed facts circulating freely in
the public domain and when there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement with your statements or summaries of these.
7. One of the Reasons for Referencing is to Avoid Accusations of
Plagiarism; so read on…
PLAGIARISM
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Plagiarism is about copying or acquiring the work of others and, directly or indirectly, claiming it to be your own independent and original work.
There are, however, no internationally agreed academic norms or conventions on what constitutes plagiarism, and this can cause difficulties for some international students who may
have encountered different practices in their home countries.
In Britain, there is a particularly strong emphasis given to respecting the authorship of ideas and honouring the hard work that goes
into researching, preparing and writing academic texts.
(Scarfe 1982)
An academic monograph or textbook, for example, can take an author several years to research and write. Consequently it is widely felt in Britain that to copy from a book without acknowledging the source is a violation against the author’s ownership of ideas and therefore morally wrong. For this reason plagiarism is treated seriously and blatantly plagiarised work is usually disqualified.
Each university develops its own interpretation of plagiarism, but in general there are four main forms of plagiarism:
U Copying or acquiring another person’s work, including the work of another student (with or without their consent), and claiming or pretending it to be your own;#p#分頁標題#e#
U Presenting arguments that use a blend of your own and the directly copied words of the original author, with or without acknowledging the source;
U Paraphrasing another person’s work, but not giving due acknowledgement to the original writer or organisation publishing the writing, including work on Internet sites;
U Colluding with other students and submitting identical or near identical work.
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However, it is also important that students are aware of their university’s own interpretation of plagiarism, as each institution may place emphasis on a particular feature of plagiarism.
For example, Bradford University’s policy on academic integrity states:
A dissertation, thesis, essay, project or any other work which is not undertaken in an examination room under supervision but which is submitted by a student for formal assessment must be written by the student and
in the student’s own words, except for quotations from published
and unpublished sources which shall be clearly indicated and acknowledged as such…
If you copy work for assessment, it defeats the whole purpose of the exercise. If we mark work you have copied, it is not your progress that we are evaluating, but that of somebody else. And if it is someone else’s work, our comments will not help you improve and fulfil your own potential. Honestly producing work which is your own best effort, and having it subject
to the scrutiny of others is the most important aspect of academic integrity, a duty which the university demands of all of its members, staff and students alike.
Copying assessments breaches academic integrity in a fundamental way and constitutes a grave breach of regulations and as such the University would take necessary disciplinary action. Copying is simply a form of cheating - pretending something is yours when it is not. At its most blatant, it is generally known as plagiarism, the most serious act of deception anyone in academic life can be accused of. But even if there is no deliberate intention to deceive, copying is unacceptable academic practice.
(University of Bradford 2003)
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You will see from the first paragraph of this statement that the University is particularly concerned that students should use their own words as far as is possible to summarise or paraphrase what they have read.
Of course, there will inevitably be some overlap between the writer’s words and your own – particularly when describing places, dates, specific features and the names of organisations.
However, you should make a determined effort to use your own words to sum up what you have read. The act of doing this encourages a deeper level of understanding as, in the process, you are forced to think hard about what is actually said and meant by the authors.#p#分頁標題#e#
Lecturers marking course work can recognise plagiarism easily. This applies particularly when passages are copied straight from books, or cut and pasted from the Internet, with no acknowledgement of their source. Lecturers will usually recognise the work of established writers in the subject area concerned and there will be stylistic differences in writing between the original author and a student’s work that an experienced lecturer will detect. The School of Management is now systematically using electronic scanning systems to highlight plagiarism in students’ writing.
How to Avoid Plagiarism
Applying, analysing, criticising or quoting other people’s work is perfectly reasonable and acceptable providing you always:
9 attempt to summarize or restate in your own words another person’s work, theories or ideas and give acknowledgement to that person. This is usually done by citing your sources and presenting a list of references;
or
9 by always using quotation marks (or indenting lengthy quotations in your text) to distinguish between the actual words of the writer and your own words. Once again, you would cite all sources and present full details of these in your list of references.
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Summarising in Your Own Words
Here is an example of how this can be done.
The extract below is a paragraph taken from a journal article. This is followed by two student summaries of the extract. As mentioned earlier, it is impossible not to use some of the words used in the original article, particularly when referring to the subjects of the discussion. But the aim should be to try and put the idea or argument into your own words as best you can.
Original Extract
For thousands of years, outsiders have regarded China as a xenophobic country. However, the stereotypes have been changing since China opened up its economy in 1979. Now, the encouragement of foreign direct investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) lies at the heart of economic relations between foreign countries and China. The international flows of capital, information and technology facilitate the economic growth of China and the influence of multinational enterprises (MNEs). The boom in FDI and ITT has brought to the fore the issue of intellectual property rights (IPRs) as a major topic in the economic development of China. Although a historical review shows that the
germination of the concept of IPRs in China goes back more than 100 years,
in reality no effective system of intellectual property protection (IPP) existed until very recent times.
(From Yang, D. and Clarke, P. (2004) ‘review of the current intellectual property system in China’, International Journal Technology Transfer and Commercialisation, vol. 3, No. 1, pp.12-37; reprinted with permission.#p#分頁標題#e#
Two Summaries
Summary A
This essay is about intellectual property (IP) in general and about the situation in China today, and about China’s relationship with the West in relation to this issue. For centuries China has been regarded by the outside world as a rather closed and insular country. However, Yang and Clarke (2004) argue that now things are changing, and particularly so since 1979, when China decided to open up its economy. Since then, foreign direct investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) are important connecting links between China and the rest of the world. Now the flows of capital, information, technology and the influence of multinational enterprises MNEs have stimulated the Chinese economy. But these developments have also caused attention to focus on the issue of intellectual property rights (IPR). Although the concept of IPR goes back more than a hundred years, there has been no effective system of intellectual property protection (IPP) until recently.
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Summary B
China has been regarded, up to now, by the outside world, as a rather closed and xenophobic country. However things are changing. Since 1979, China has loosened, opened and stimulated its economy by foreign direct investment (FDI), international technology transfer (ITT) - and from the influence of multinational enterprises (MNEs). However, these developments have also focused attention on the issue of intellectual property rights (IPR) and until recently in China there has been no effective system of intellectual property protection (IPP) (Yang and Clarke 2004).
In these extracts, the students try to present the information taken from the extract in their own words, although some repetition of primary and key words is inevitable. They also cite the original source (Yang and Clarke 2004).
TYPES OF REFERENCING
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In Britain, there are four main styles of referencing in use within higher education, shown below in descending order of use.
1. Author/Date (Harvard and APA Styles)
The author/date (Harvard) approach to referencing tends to be the style that is adopted by the majority of university departments. This is the style adopted by the School of Management, University of Bradford, for all its courses, except Law - which uses a combination of Harvard and a Running-note style - see below. The Harvard Style involves giving a partial reference (a citation) in the body of your assignment, often, but not always, enclosed within brackets e.g. (Levin#p#分頁標題#e#
2004), and then giving full information of the source at the end of the assignment in a ‘references’ or ‘bibliography’ list. Sources are always listed alphabetically by author’s last name, or name of organisation.
The American Psychological Association (APA) have developed a referencing style similar to Harvard and this is adopted by many psychology and related disciplines in the UK. There are minor differences between Harvard and APA, but it is important that students asked to adopt APA style are aware of these (go to http://www.apastyle.org/ for more information).
2. Running-Note Style
This involves inserting a raised number or superscript in the assignment, for example, 1 for the first source, 2 for the second source, and so on. One source may have many different numbers attached to it, depending on how often it is referred to in the assignment. These numbers connect with citations at the
bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end as endnotes, which is headed ‘Notes and References’. The full references are shown against the numbers in the numerical order they appeared.
3. Vancouver-Numeric Style
This also involves a numbering system, but numbers appear in brackets, e.g. (1) in the main body of the assignment. However, unlike the numbered-note style, the same number can be used on any number of occasions when referring to the same source. The sources are then listed in full at the end, under ‘References’,
but listed in the numerical order they appeared, rather than in alphabetical order.
4. Author/Page (or MLA) Style
This is similar to Harvard Style. However, it uses page numbers instead of the year in the citation, so refers to the author and specific page where the information referred to in the source can be found. Only a few departments within universities recommend this particular style, as the author/date (Harvard Style) can include page numbers in the citations if required.
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PRINCIPLES OF REFERENCING
All styles of referencing are underpinned by five principles:
1. the principle of Intellectual Property: Western concepts of plagiarism are based on an economic model of capitalism and the notion that someone can own an idea if the idea has been presented in a ‘fixed’ way, e.g. published or presented in the public domain;
The first principle, above, establishes a rationale for all referencing styles and 2 – 5 below establish a framework for referencing practice within these styles.
2. the principle of Access: to help readers quickly locate original documents referred to in a text;#p#分頁標題#e#
3. the principle of Economy: the references should include as much information as necessary to help readers locate them. But they should also be presented in such a way as to reduce the need for lengthy explanations in the text and speed up the process of reading;
4. the principle of Standardization: referencing should be presented in a way that allows everyone to understand the meaning;
5. the principle of Transparency: referencing should include easily understood abbreviations that are recognizable to many people, for example, the use of ed. for ‘editor’.
(Walker and Taylor 1998)
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Golden Rule of Referencing
The ‘Golden Rule’ of referencing is to give the reader enough information to help them easily and quickly find the source you cited.
If they wanted to look at your source and check it out for themselves, could they find it easily with the source information you have given?
THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA
The basic idea of the Harvard Style is to:
1. use citations (a partial reference) in the text
2. list all references in full at the end of an assignment
1. Use Citations in the Text
In the text of your assignment you give a partial reference (called a citation). This is the last name of the author, followed by the year of publication. If you don’t have the author’s name, you use the name of an organisation, newspaper, journal, or whatever the main source is.
Citing the source as you write involves giving a partial or shortened
reference (last name of author(s) and year of publication) in the main body of
your written assignment and then giving full details of the source in full at the end of the assignment in a ‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’ section. You can abbreviate lengthy organisational names; see example below (YHES 1998).
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Example: Citations
Although Handy (1994) has argued that education is the key to economic success for individuals, organisations and nations, a majority of adults in the UK have yet to be convinced or persuaded of this argument. In 1999 only forty per cent of adults had participated in any sort of formal learning in the previous three years. Of these, a significant majority was from social class groups A, B and C. Only a quarter of adults from semi-skilled or unskilled work backgrounds had involved themselves in formal education (Tuckett 1999). The consequences for people without#p#分頁標題#e#
qualifications who lose their jobs are often serious. A study of long-term unemployed people in Yorkshire found that sixty-one per cent had no educational qualifications, and a significant number of these had special learning needs
(YHES 1998). There would appear to be a link too, between lack of qualifications,
poor health and a disengagement from participation in political or civic life, and could aggravate the situation of unemployment for the people concerned (Hagen
2002).
Citations in the Text
The examples shown in Section 3 of this booklet are enclosed in brackets, e.g. (Munger and Campbell 2002). However, citations in the text can be introduced in a variety of ways.
For example:
There would appear to have emerged by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of people within organisations (Handy 1996).
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This introduces a point of view and the student points to Handy as a major proponent of this perspective.
But this is not the only way of citing the author. The student could have also cited Handy, as follows:
Handy (1996) argues that by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of people within organisations had emerged.
or, (if wanting to include Handy as an exemplar of this proposition):
Some commentators, for example, Handy (1996), have argued that by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of people within organisations had emerged.
or
It can be argued, (for example, see Handy 1996), that two approaches to the management of people within organisations had emerged by the end of the twentieth century.
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or
Charles Handy, amongst others, has argued that by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of people within organisations could be observed (Handy 1996).
There is no one ‘right’ way of citing authors. It depends on your writing style at any particular point in the assignment. The important point is to give credit to authors who have influenced your ideas and arguments.
List References in Full at the End of an Assignment
The way the full reference details are presented in this booklet is based on advice from the following sources: British Standards Institution (BSI) guidelines:
‘Recommendations for citing and referencing published material’, BS 5605 and BSI guidelines 6371 ‘Recommendations for citation of unpublished documents’; and the guidelines suggested by Xia and Crane in their book ‘Electronic Styles: a handbook for citing electronic information’ (1996).#p#分頁標題#e#
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In the References or Bibliography section at the end of an assignment the basic format for listing references in the Harvard Style is as follows:
1. Start with the last name(s), followed by initials of the author(s), contributor, editor, producer or speaker. If you don’t have the name of an author, start with the name of the originator. This can be an organisation name, e.g. BBC, or name of a website, e.g. Bized.
2. This is followed by the year of publication; put this in brackets. This should be easy to find on printed documents. However, in some older books it may be missing. In this event, put (no date), or (n/d). With Internet sources, look for a year the item was placed on the site, or in the absence of this, when the site was last updated (the year in question), or if unsuccessful with either of these two, the year you looked at the information.
3. This is followed by the title of the source. The main source is usually emphasised in some way, e.g. underlined or italics. The main source would be, for example, the title of a book, name of the magazine, journal or newspaper, broadcast production source, video or CD-Rom etc. Whichever mode of emphasis you choose- underlining or italics - keep it consistent
throughout. The pattern in this booklet is to emphasise main sources by the
use of italics.
4. If your source is a chapter from an edited book, you then give the name or names of the editors of the book, followed by the title of the edited book (see example on page 27).
5. In most printed items you would give details of the publisher. You first give the name of the town or city where the source was published, followed by the name of the publisher.
6. In the case of a journal article, you finish with the reference details of
volume, edition/issue number (if shown) of the journal and the page numbers of where the article can be found.
(There may be variations on this general sequence for some sources; see examples in this booklet).
Referencing electronic sources follows the same basic format as described on page 18, although the URL is given instead of publisher – see section 3.12 of this booklet for referencing electronic sources). The specific date you looked at the information is also included, e.g. (accessed 05/12/2005).
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At the end of the assignment the references are given in alphabetical order, by
last name of the author(s), in full. The references for the citation example shown on page 16 would be listed, as follows:#p#分頁標題#e#
References
Hagen, J. (2002). Basic Skills for Adults. Birmingham: The Guidance Council. Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat. London: Hutchinson.
Tuckett, A. (1999) ‘Who’s Learning What?’ The Guardian 18/5/1999, p. 13.
YHES: Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service (1998). Survey of Clients Aged
25+ Unemployed for Two Years or More. London: Department for Education and
Employment.
If you use an abbreviation in the citation, you would start with this abbreviation in the reference, then immediately explain it: YHES: Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service.
SECTION 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT REFERENCING
“Should I include page numbers from books or other sources in the citations”?
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Single Topic Books
Many single subject books have a main or dominant message, perspective or argument that forms the core or essence of the book.
Authors build their arguments around these cores by presenting evidence and examples to back up their perspectives or by rebutting counter-arguments. If you wish to offer evidence in your assignment that summarise these essential core perspectives, then a page number is not necessary.
However, if you use and include a quotation from the book, you will need to include a page number in the citation:
…Ron Todd of the Transport and General Workers’ Union commented, “we’ve got three million on the dole and another 23 million scared to death” (quoted by Bratton 1992 p.70).
You can also include a page number in the citation, if you are referring to some specific detail that is secondary or incidental to the book’s core point or perspective and which would be hard to find without a page number. These might include, for example:
¾ Statistics
¾ Illustrative examples
¾ Comments made by research subjects
¾ Author comments not directly related to the main topic
You would also give a page number if you are using the book as a secondary source – see next page.
Other Books and Sources
The same comments for books on a single topic apply for other sources. If the reader will struggle to find precisely what you looked at without the benefit of page numbers in the citation, then include them.
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Secondary Referencing:
“The author of the book I read mentions another author. I want to refer to this other author. How do I reference this”?#p#分頁標題#e#
This is called secondary referencing. Typically, you will be reading a chapter in a book and the author will mention an interesting piece of research done by someone else, or provide a useful fact for your assignment, then give a citation, naming another writer or writers.
You have two choices in this situation. You can find and read the source mentioned yourself and check out the accuracy of the summary given by the author you read – this is the recommended option - and then you can refer directly to this author, as you have read the source yourself.
However, if you find it difficult to find or gain access to the primary source, and where you are confident the secondary source author is reliable and accurate in the way he or she has paraphrased or quoted the original author and when you do not need to go into any great depth of analysis on what that primary author has written, you can use these secondary sources.
For example, in the book ‘Licensed to Work’ by Barrie Sherman and Phil Judkins (1995), there is a reference to another writer, Ivan Illich, who refers to ‘shadow work’: tasks in society that were once the responsibility of extended families and close communities.
If Sherman and Judkins book was used as a secondary source, your citation
must make this clear. So you could write:
“Ivan Illich (1981), as summarised by Sherman and Judkins (1995 p.121)
has suggested that ‘shadow work’…..
or
“Illich (1981) has suggested that ‘shadow work’: tasks in society were once the responsibility of extended families and close communities (in Sherman and Judkins, 1995 p.121).
or
“Sherman and Judkins in their book (1995 p.121) refer to the work of Ivan
Illich (1981), who coined the term ‘shadow work’ to suggest that ….”
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The full reference must give details of the source you looked at, e.g. Sherman, B. and Judkins, P. (1995). Licensed to Work. London: Cassell.
If anyone wanted to read Ivan Illich’s book, they could then look at ‘Licensed to Work’ and find the full reference details there. It is not strictly necessary to give the year of Illich’s book. However, it can be useful to the reader to give this detail, as there may be more than one Illich book listed in the primary source.
“How do I cite and reference books or other sources from an author that has published more than once in the same year”?
You use letters a, b, c and onward in your citations to differentiate between the different sources; for example:
#p#分頁標題#e#The term ‘communication apprehension’ was coined by James
McCroskey (1976a) and is defined as….
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Later in the assignment you might want to refer to same author, different source, same year again, e.g.
Studies suggest that high CA can impact on a person’s behaviour, relationships, the perceptions of others, occupational choice and employment opportunities and education (McCroskey 1976b; McCroskey and Richmond 1979…
In the references/bibliography, you would then link the two different sources to the citation:
McCroskey, J. C. (1976a). ‘The Effects of Communication Apprehension on
Nonverbal Behavior’. Communication Quarterly, 24, 39-44.
McCroskey, J. C. (1976b). ‘The Problems of Communication Apprehension in the Classroom’. Speech Communication Journal, 4, 1-12, [online]
Same Author – Different Books – But Similar Points Made in Each One
You might on occasions want to refer to two or more books that an author has written in a single citation – as the same argument may have been presented by the author on more than one occasion. You can cite the author with the earlier works listed first, e.g. (Handy 1976; 1984; 1994).
“I read a book in my own (non-English) language. Do I give you an English translation of the title?”
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You should give details of the source you looked at, which will include the title and author, in the language concerned.
However, it may be appropriate to add an English translation (in brackets) immediately after, particularly if the book was originally published in non- European characters, e.g. Chinese, Arabic.
“What punctuation and capitalisation style should I use in referencing”?
The British Standard recommendation is for no punctuation within the brackets containing a citation, e.g. (Handy 1994), although if a number of authors are cited, you would need punctuation to separate out the names, e.g. (Mc Croskey, Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977)
The BSI recommendations also suggest sentence stops after each distinct part of the reference, e.g.
Handy, C. (1994).
The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.
London: Hutchinson.
Example:
Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future. London: Hutchinson.#p#分頁標題#e#
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Although British Standards does not show the year in brackets, it has become an accepted style in referencing to enclose the year of publication within round brackets: Handy, C. (1994).
Titles
The spelling of the original title should be retained, e.g. Americanisation of words in titles should be retained.
Capitalisation
Follow the capitalisation shown in the original document.
For example, many book titles in social science, humanities and business disciplines capitalize the first and last words and all words except articles (e.g.
‘the’; ‘an’); prepositions (e.g. ‘on’; ‘to’; ‘up’; ‘in’; ‘between’ - and other words indicating spatial or temporal positions); and co-ordinate conjunctions (e.g.
‘and’; ‘but’; ‘or’; ‘for’; ‘so’; ‘yet’)
Examples:
Turabian, K.L. (1973). A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
But you may find that titles in science disciplines and in most newspaper or magazine articles start with a capital and use lower case for subsequent title words, e.g.
Saigol, S. (2005) ‘Gift shoppers set to spend £150m daily online’. Financial Times,
12/12/2005, p.4.
The best advice, therefore, is to copy the title as it is shown in its original form.
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“The source has no date. How can I
reference this”?
Older books may not show a date of publication. In that event, use the abbreviation ‘n.d.’ (no date) in your citation and in the reference. You may find other sources, e.g. videos, without apparent production dates, and the abbreviation can be used with other undated sources.
“I have noticed that some writers cite more than one author occasionally in support of a particular argument or point of view. When should I do this”?
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A number of authors can be cited in support of particularly key or important points that you want to make or to support contentious statements or arguments presented by others.
See the example shown on page 7 of this booklet (example 4).#p#分頁標題#e#
“Are quotations and all the citations in the text counted in the word count"?
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Yes. If you include quotations in your assignment you take ‘ownership’ of them. You have decided to include quotations for emphasis or to make a particular point, so you must include them in your word count.
Citations in the text e.g. (Handy 1994) are also included in the word count.
SECTION 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCING
3.1 REFERENCING PRINTED BOOKS
SINGLE TOPIC (MONOGRAPH) BOOKS
The last name(s) of the author(s) is listed first, followed by the initial letters of
first names; followed by the year of publication in brackets; followed by the book title (in italics or underlined – but be consistent whichever you decide); then list the location (town or city) of the publisher, and finally the name of the publisher.
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Examples:
Citation: (Handy 1994)
Reference:
Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.
London: Hutchinson.
Citation: Saunders et al (2003)
Reference:
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., (2003). Research
Methods for Business Students, 3rd edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall.
et al?
If a document has one or two authors (or originators) of equal status, both their names should be given in the citation. If there are more than two, the name of the first should always be given, but the names of the others may be omitted and replaced by the term
‘et al’ (meaning, ‘and others’) e.g. (Burchell et al 1999).
Some study skills textbooks suggest that you use the term ‘et al’
when there are more than three authors. However, as ‘et al’ means
‘and others’, the British Standards Institution (BS5605) recommend it should be used when there are more than two authors (BSI
1990).
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REFERENCING A CHAPTER FROM AN EDITED BOOK
Some books are not written by a single author, but contain articles or chapters written by different authors. These are edited collections, sometimes called ‘readers’ and have one or more editors.
If you make reference to an author in an edited collection, you need to give the last name, initials, date of publication, title of chapter (inverted commas), name(s) of editor(s), title of book (in italics or underlined), then location of and name of publisher, and page numbers.#p#分頁標題#e#
Examples:
Citation: (North et al 1983)
Reference:
North, D., Leigh, R., and Gough, J. (1983) ‘Monitoring Industrial Change at the Local Level: Some Comments on Methods and Data Sources’, in M. Healey (ed.) Urban and Regional Industrial Research: The Changing UK Data Base’, Norwich: Geo Books, pp.111-29.
Citation: (Moorhouse 1984)
Reference: Moorhouse, H.F. (1984) ‘American Automobiles and Workers’ Dreams’, in K. Thompson (ed.) Work, Employment and Unemployment, Milton Keynes: Open University Press, pp.80-89.
Here’s ‘et al’ again! (see page
26).
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As you are referring to a specific chapter in a book, give the page numbers of the chapter in the reference.
To see if you need to mention the page numbers in the citation, see comments on page 20.
The initials of the author of the chapter follow after the author’s last name.
However, the initials of the editor(s) come before the last name(s) (as recommended in British Standards BS5605, 1990).
REFERENCING FROM ENCYCLOPAEDIAS and OTHER PRINTED REFERENCE BOOKS
Avoid an over-reliance on encyclopaedias for information. As a first choice, use try and information from monograph, edited books or peer-reviewed academic journals.
Encyclopaedias: It is unlikely that the name of an individual writer
or contributor will be shown, but if one is shown, start with this: family name first, then the writer’s initials. However, if no writer is shown, start with the title of the encyclopaedia, then give brief details of the
entry referred to in the assignment, then add volume, the place of publication and name of publisher and then the page numbers.
In dictionaries or other reference books, if the name of the editor(s) or compiler(s) is shown, start with this, then give details of the book in the usual way. If no editor is shown, start with the title of the reference book.
Abbreviations can be used in citations to shorten long titles (see examples 3 and 4 below) although the full title must be given in the reference.
Titles of the books are in italics or underlined.
1. Citation: (New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1975)
Reference: New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1975) ‘Goshen’, volume 4. Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, p.642.
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2. Citation: (Leibster and Horner 1989)
Reference: Leibster, L., Horner, C. (1989) ‘Definition: Elasticity of Supply’, The Hamlyn Dictionary of Business Terms: an A-Z Guide to the World of Commerce and Economics. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group, p.84.#p#分頁標題#e#
3. Citation: (ALC 2000)
Reference: ALC: Asia’s 7,500 Largest Companies (2000),
‘Quoted Companies’. London: ELC International, p.90.
4. Citation: (DMCPSF 2004)
Reference: DMCPSF: Directory of Management Consultants and Professional Service Firms in the UK (2004), 15th edition, ‘Centre for Management Creativity’. Peterborough: Kennedy Information Inc, p.220.
3.2 REFERENCING JOURNAL ARTICLES, MAGAZINES and
NEWSPAPERS
ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLES
Where to find the information you need on a printed academic journal.
Journal title
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Year of publication
Article Title
Pages of article
Authors’ names (In the reference, the last name(s) of authors are given first, then their initials, see below)
Volume & part: the number of years the journal has been published
and number of parts so far.
Start with the last name of the author of the article, initials of author, year of publication (in brackets), title of article (in inverted commas), name of the journal or magazine (in italics or underlined), volume number and part number (if applicable) and page numbers.
References to journal articles do not include the name of the publisher or place of publication, unless there is more than one journal with the same title, e.g. International Affairs (Moscow) and International Affairs (London).
Example:
Citation: (Bosworth and Yang 2000).
Reference:
Bosworth, D. and Yang, D. (2000). Intellectual Property Law, Technology Flow and Licensing Opportunities in China. International Business Review, vol. 9, no. 4, pp.453-477.
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(The abbreviations, ‘vol.’, ‘no.’ and ‘pp’ can be omitted, but for clarity and to avoid confusing the reader with a mass of consecutive numbers, it is suggested they are included).
MAGAZINES
The same sequence of referencing academic journals applies to magazines with a general readership.
¾ If there is an author, start with his or her last name, followed by their initials
¾ Year of publication (in brackets)
¾ If there is no author name, start with the originator’s name (as recommended by British Standards); this would be the name of the magazine (in italics)#p#分頁標題#e#
¾ The title of the article (you can include this in inverted commas)
¾ If you started with the author’s name, give the title of the magazine at this point (in italics, or underlined)
¾ Then full details of the specific date the magazine was published
¾ Page numbers
Examples (with and without authors from the same magazine):
Citation: (Rigby 2005)
Reference:
Rigby, R. (2005). ‘Crossover Consultants’. Management Today, November 2005, pp.30-35.
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Citation: (Management Today 2005)
Reference:
Management Today (2005) ‘Business Manners, Working
From Home’, November 2005, p.12.
NEWSPAPERS
The order of referencing is:
¾ Name of writer, if shown
¾ (if name of writer not given, start with the name of the Newspaper (in italics)
¾ Year of publication
¾ Title of article (you can include this in inverted commas)
¾ Name of newspaper (in italics or underlined), if not shown as the first item
¾ Day of publication
¾ Details of any special identifying feature, e.g. review sections, supplements
¾ Page number
Examples:
1. Citation: (Saigol 2005)
Reference:
Saigol, L. (2005). ‘Gift shoppers set to spend £150m daily online’.
Financial Times, 12/12/2005, p.4.Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
2. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)
Reference:
Financial Times (2005). ‘Duke does U-turn over spin-off sale’, 12/12/2005, p.14.
3. Citation: (Skypala 2005)
Reference:
Skypala, P. (2005). ‘Shooting the rapids of pension liabilities’, Financial
Times: FTfm (Fund Management), 12/12/2005, p.3.
4. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)
Reference:
Financial Times (2005) ‘Helping fashion to embrace IT’. FT Companies & Markets supplement, 12/12/2005, p.24.
¾ Short news items without author’s name in newspapers can be referenced by giving full details in the citation only. If it is a local paper, it is helpful to include the city of origin, e.g. (Bradford ‘Telegraph and Argus’ 21/06/2004, p.4).
¾ If the article appeared originally in printed form, but is being presented to you on the Internet, via Metalib/Proquest, or on a CD-Rom, you can reference this as if it was a printed source in front of you providing you are sure that the article is unabridged or unamended (it will usually say if it has been altered or amended).#p#分頁標題#e#
3.3 TV/RADIO/VIDEO/AUDIO CASSETTE/CD ROM SOURCES
Start with the name of any author, e.g. for a CD-ROM or audio cassette, if applicable. If not applicable, start with a production source (see examples 1 and 5) then give information on the year of production, and any specific transmission dates. The information medium, e.g. CD-ROM, video cassette, radio, television, should
always be specified. Titles of any video, CD-Rom or audio cassette should be in italics or underlined. In the case of radio and television programmes, the production source, e.g. BBC, should be shown in italics or underlined.
If someone has been interviewed (see television programme example below), and the interview forms the basis for the citation and reference, the reference should start with the name of the person interviewed.
The important thing is that you give the reader full information on the medium, programme or production in question, particularly its title, date of broadcast or production, and the production source.
Examples:
1. Radio Programme
Citation: (BBC Radio 4 2003)
Reference: BBC Radio 4 (2003). ‘Analysis’, broadcast 12/5/2003.
2. Television Programme
Citation: (Porrit, J. 1991)Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
Reference: Porrit, J. (1991). Interview by Jonathan Dimbleby, ‘Panorama’,
BBC 1 Television, broadcast 18/03/1991.
3. Audio CD
Citation: (Roberts 2000)
Reference: Roberts, R. (2000). Passive Music for Accelerated Learning
(audio-CD). Carmathen: Crown House Publishing.
4. CD-ROM
Citation: (Ziegler 1992)
Reference: Zeigler, H. (1992) The Software Toolworks Multimedia
Encyclopedia (version 1.5), Software Toolworks (CD-ROM). Boston: Grolier.
5. Video Tape
Citation: (TV Choice Productions nd)
Reference: TV Choice Productions (nd). The Presentation: a Guide to
Effective Speaking (video tape). Bromley: TV Choice Productions.
3.4 REFERENCING GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
Start with the name of the writer or organisation sponsoring the publication (if shown) or, if not shown, title of article (in inverted commas), the title of publication (in italics or underlined), followed by date of publication, place of publication,
name of official publisher, finally the volume or edition date number, table or page number.
Examples:
Citation: (Office for National Statistics 2000)
Reference:
Office for National Statistics (2000). Standard Occupational Classification
Volume 2: The Coding Index. London: The Stationery Office.
Citation: (Central Statistical Office 1990)
Reference:
Central Statistical Office (1990). Social Trends, 20. London: HMSO.#p#分頁標題#e#
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Government sponsored reports often have long titles but become commonly known by the name of the Chairman of the committee responsible. You should always give the full official title of the report in a reference, but you can give the popular title too, if you wish. You can also use an abbreviation in the citation, but you must give the full title in the reference; see example below:
Citation: (UNWCED 1987)
Reference:
UNWCED: United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future (Brundtland Report). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Parliamentary Reports require a little more detail, but the basic principle is the same; see example below.
Citation: (House of Lords 1996)
Reference:
House of Lords (1996). Information Society: Agenda for Action in the UK: Fifth Report of the Select Committee on Science and Technology, session 1995-96. HMSO, 1996 (HL 1995-96 51).
3.5 PRINTED REPORTS (including Company Annual Reports)
Annual Reports
Company annual reports often involve multiple authors and rarely show the name or names of the compilers or editors. If they do, however, start with these. But if not, start with the company name, then give the year, then full title (in italics or underlined), section and chapter (if applicable) then page number.
Citation: (Cable & Wireless 2002)
Reference:
Cable & Wireless (2003). Annual Report and Accounts 2003:
report of the independent auditors, p.35.
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Other Reports
• Start with name of author (if shown): family name, then initials
• If no name of author, start with name of report
• Year of publication
• Full title of report, including sub-section or sub-title information (in italics or underlined) and edition number
• Volume, sections, page number (if applicable)
• Place of publication
• Name of publisher
Citation: (Business Ratio Reports 2004)
Reference:
Business Ratio Reports (2004). Security Industry, edn. 26, section 4: Performance League Tables: sales: 4-2. Hampton: Keynote.
3.6 REFERENCING COURSE MANUALS/LECTURE NOTES
You can also refer to course manuals and lecture notes given to you by teaching staff. These notes may be a primary source, e.g. a summary or explanation written by a lecturer, or a secondary source, where a lecturer is quoting what someone else has said, or referring directly to a third person.#p#分頁標題#e#
Examples of citing primary and secondary sources using teaching notes supplied to you (imagine that the following extracts are taken from an essay on marketing):
1. Primary
When choosing from the mix of promotional activities available to market a product, the market objectives should be the main driving force. Low (2004) has suggested four main questions: who is your target group? What do you want them to do? When do you want them to act? And how much are you prepared to spend to communicate with them?
2. Secondary
Marketing Communications has been defined as a process “through which an organisation enters into a dialogue with its various audiences”. The objective is to influence in a positive way a particular target audience in its awareness, understanding and actions towards that organisation and its products or services’ (Fill 2002, as cited in Low, 2004, p.2).
In both cases, the ‘References’ section would give full details of Low, which is the source for both these citations, i.e.
Low, C. (2004). Marketing Communications, from MA Course
Manual, 2004/5, p.2, University of Bradford, School of Management.
Regarding the second example (secondary source), you might want to go to the main source, i.e. Fill, 2002, to look at the original to enable you to expand on the definition presented or be critical of it. If you did do this you could then cite Fill directly as a primary source.
3.7 REFERENCING WORD-OF-MOUTH (interviews, telephone conversations and lectures)
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Interviews
Face to face interviews you conduct for any project can be referenced, provided you make available any interview notes, transcripts, completed interview questionnaires or recordings made. These can be added, if required, as appendix items (check with your tutor).
Start your full reference with the family name of the interviewee, initials, year of interview, then state the purpose of the interview (italics or underlined), place of interview, name of interviewer (this could be your own name), then date of interview.
Citation: (Brown 2005)
Reference: Brown, J. (2005). Personal Interview (marketing survey for MA
project). GKN, Leeds, with Jim Clarke, 20/03/05.
Telephone Discussions (including interviews)
A similar principle (about keeping notes or making a recording) and reference sequence applies to telephone conversations:
• Name of person spoken to (family name, then initials)
• Year
• Medium (telephone conversation/interview)
• Subject of discussion (italics or underlined)
• Your name (or name of person speaking to subject)#p#分頁標題#e#
• Date of conversation
Citation: (Edwards 2005)
Reference:
Edwards, R. (2005). Telephone interview re. SMEs and graduate employment with Colin Neville, 13/12/2005.
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Ensure you keep a written record of verbal discussions, otherwise your tutor has no way of cross-checking points you make in assignments.
Lectures
• Start with name of lecturer: family name, then initials
• Year
• Medium (lecture) and details of lecture (italics or underlined)
• Module and course details, including academic year
• Place
• Exact date of lecture
Citation: (Neville 2005)
Reference:
Neville, C. (2005). Lecture on academic writing, Self-development module, first year undergraduate course 2005/6, University of Bradford, School of Management, 25/11/2005.
You could also reference published interviews in journals, magazines or elsewhere. The sequence for this would be:
• Name of person interviewed (last or family name first, then initials)
• Year of interview
• Title of interview
• Explanation of interview
• Interviewer’s name
• Title of publication (in italics or underlined)
• Publication details, including full date and page number
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Citation: (Turner 2005)
Reference:
Turner, N. (2005). ‘Turner’s secret: the short-haul factor’. Interview with Nigel Turner, BMI’s new CEO, by Ben Flanagan. The Observer (Business Section), 22/05/2005, p.18.
(See also television interviews, page 32).
3.8 REFERENCING UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
The same basic format for Harvard referencing applies for referencing unpublished sources: start with the name of the writer or speaker, year of dissertation, conference title (in italics or underlined) of the document(s), talk, presentation
etc, name of conference or seminar (if applicable) and other information to locate
the material. In the case of archive material, this will be the name of the place where the item is to be found.
Examples:
Unpublished MBA dissertation
Citation: (Cooper 2003)
Reference: Cooper, T.E.J. (2003). Implementing Strategic Change in the Recruitment Advertising/Employment Communication Industry. Unpublished MBA Management Project, University of Bradford, School of Management Library.#p#分頁標題#e#
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Unpublished Conference Paper
Citation: (Broadbent 2005)
Reference: Broadbent, M. (2005). Tackling Plagiarism: a Teaching and Learning Perspective. Unpublished paper delivered at Conference: ‘Tackling Plagiarism’. University of Hertfordshire, Business School, 22/03/05.
Unpublished Archive Material
Citation: (Vickridge, 1918)
Reference: Vickridge, A. Correspondence of Alberta Vickridge 1917-1965, Box
2, letter to Vickridge from A. Christie, 12/02/1918. University of Leeds, Brotherton Library.
3.9 REFERENCING STANDARDS and PATENTS
Standards
In the full reference:
• Start with the issuing body, e.g. British Standards
• Year of publication (if the standard number incorporates the date of publication, this can be omitted, as in the example below)
• Title (italics or underlined)
• The Standard number
Citation: (British Standards 1990)
Reference:
British Standards. Presentation of theses and dissertations. BS4821:1990
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Patents
The sequence in the full reference is:
• Name(s) of inventor(s) or patentee(s): family name(s) first, then initials
• Year of publication
• Title of patent (italics or underlined)
• Country of origin and serial number
• Date of application and date of acceptance
Citation: (Lund-Anderson 2001)
Reference:
Lund-Anderson, B. (2001). Device for the damping of vibrators between objects. US Patent 6296238. Appl. 24/06/1999. Acc.
02/10/2001.
3.10 REFERENCING LEGAL DOCUMENTS
Students on law degree or related courses will learn a referencing style that is particular to this subject, which is usually the Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA). This is the style used by the Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal, who contributed to its development. However, students on other courses, who
occasionally have to cite legal cases, may also find this section helpful.
OSCOLA style of referencing
More detailed information on the OSCOLA Style of referencing can be obtained from the website of Faculty of Law, University of Oxford. Briefly though, the OSCOLA referencing style is different to the Harvard style of referencing in that it uses a raised or superscript numbers in the text of an assignment, combined with footnotes. The numbers used in the text against evidence presented is then connected with a footnote at the base of each page. You can use the ‘Insert’ –#p#分頁標題#e#
‘Reference’ – ‘Footnotes’ facility on Microsoft Word to manage this for you. You
would also need to prepare a bibliography at the end of the assignment to present an alphabetical overview of all the sources you had featured in your footnotes.Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
It is also different to Harvard referencing in the way it presents the full details references in footnotes and bibliographies.
With books, for example, the first name or initials of the author(s) is presented before the author’s last name, without a stop or comma between them. Also, the title is always in italics, and the edition, publisher, place of publication and date are enclosed within brackets. Page numbers can be included, if relevant, as last items in the reference. When there are more than three authors, just state the first, followed by ‘and others’.
OSCOLA examples:
• D French, How to Cite Legal Authorities, (London: Blackstone, London 1996)
33-35
• P Loose and others, The Company Director (9th rev edn Jordans, Bristol 2006)
(Note: the book mentioned above, How to Cite Legal Authorities, is recommended reading regarding citations and referencing for any student studying for a law degree).
Reference essays and chapters in edited journals, as follows:
• D Cullen, ‘Adoption – a (Fairly) New Approach’, Child and Family Law
Quarterly (Oct 2005) 17 475, 486.
A minimum of punctuation is used, and commas should be used only to stop words running into each other. All words in the title should be capitalised, except prepositions (‘of’, ‘by’, ‘which’), articles (‘the’, ‘an’, ‘a’) and conjunctions (‘and’,
‘or’).
G1. Case citation
Case citation is a frequent occurrence in law course assignments. You need to include:
• names of the parties;
• year, in square or round brackets (see below discussion for when to do this);
• volume number;
• abbreviated name of the law report series;
• first page of the reference.
Case names should be italicised in assignments, e.g.
Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1990] 2 All ER 908Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
When referring to a case for the first time, give its full name exactly as it appears in the report. In subsequent references a case can be referred to by a shortened name, e.g. Murphy v Brentwood District Council, and can be referred to as the Murphy case.#p#分頁標題#e#
If you give the full details of the case in the text, you do not need to repeat the information in a list of references.
Examples:
1. Campbell v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd [2004] 2 All ER 995
2. Rees v United Kingdom (1987) 9 EHRR 56
You could, however, refer to part of the citation in the text, e.g. Campbell v Mirror
Group Newspapers, and give the full reference details in footnotes.
Square or round brackets?
Square brackets are used when the date is essential for finding the report. Round brackets are used when the date is merely of assistance in giving an idea of when a case was featured in law reports that have cumulative volume numbers.
Abbreviations?
The abbreviations in the examples shown above refer to All England Law Reports (All ER) and European Human Rights Reports (EHRR). A full list of abbreviations in the names of law reports and journals can be found at the Cardiff University
‘Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations’ website at http://www.legalabbrevs.cardiff.ac.uk/searchabbreviation/ or from OSCOLA.
Punctuation?
Use open punctuation – no stops after parts of the abbreviation, e.g. All ER (and not All. E.R.)
Specific page references?
When a particular passage is being quoted or referred to, the specific page references must be included, e.g.
Jones v Tower Boot Co Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 406 at 411
Judge’s name?
When the judge’s name is being quoted or referred to in a particular passage, the judge’s name should be provided as part of the citation, e.g.
That was the opinion of Mackay LC in Pepper v Hart [1993] 1 All ER 42 at 47
Judges should be referred to in terms of Justice or Lords Justice, as appropriate, e.g. Clark J; or Smith LJ. If referring to more than one High Court judge: Smith, Clark and Brown JJ; or Smyth and Clarke LJJ if Lords Justice.
G2. UK Acts of Parliament (Statutes)
These are Acts passed by Parliament, which eventually receive royal assent and become law. You would normally list the source in the full reference, as follows:
• title of Act and year;Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
• the part: pt, and section: s, and/or
• the schedule: sch, and section: s. Example:
Citation: (Data Protection Act 1998)
Reference: Data Protection Act 1998. pt 1, s2.
Note: the year: 1998, does not appear in brackets in the reference, as the date is part of the title.
For older statutes, the Oxford Standard suggests it can be helpful to give the appropriate year of reign and chapter number, e.g. Crown Debts Act 1801 (14
Geo 3 c 90), meaning that the Act was given Royal Assent in the 14th, year of the reign of George the Third, and was the 90th Act given Royal Assent in that parliament, hence c 90).#p#分頁標題#e#
G3. UK Bills
A bill is proposed legislation before Parliament. Bills are cited by their name, the Parliamentary Session, the House of Parliament in which it originated and the running order assigned to it, and any relevant sections or subsections. HC= House of Commons; HL= House of Lords.
Example:
Citation: (Identity Cards Bill 2004-5)
Reference: Identity Cards Bill 2004-5 HC-8, s 9(4).
G4. UK Statutory Instruments
These are orders and regulations linked to particular Acts and should be referenced by name, date and serial number (where available).
Subsidiary words in long titles within the in-text citation may be abbreviated (see example below), but the full title must be given in the reference.
Example:
Citation: (Telecommunications (LBP) (IC) Regulations 2000)
Reference: The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception of Communications) Regulations 2000.
G5. EC LegislationDissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
European Community (EC) legislation (Regulations, Directives and Decisions), and other instruments (including Recommendations and Opinions) should be referenced by providing the legislation type, number and title, then publication details from the Official Journal (OJ) of the European Communities. Be warned, these references can be lengthy! Example:
Citation: (Commission Regulation 1475/95)
Reference:
Commission Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 of 28 June 1995 on the application of Article 85 (3) [now 81 (3)] of the Treaty to certain categories of motor vehicle distribution and servicing agreements Official Journal L 145, 29/06/1995 pp.
0025 – 0034.
The capital letter ‘L’ in the example, i.e. ‘Official Journal L’, indicates the series stands for Legislation; the C series contains EU information and notices, and the S series contains invitations to tender (see Oxford Standard p.18).
(With thanks to Neil Carter, Law Librarian, School of Management Library for allowing me to use his lecture notes in part of this section)
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3.11 REFERENCING CINEMA FILMS OR THEATRE PLAYS
Cinema films and theatre plays may also be referenced – particularly to make social points or to give dramatic examples of a particular theory in action.
For example, the 1957 film ‘Twelve Angry Men’ makes an effective point about the pressure in groups to conform to the will of the majority. And the 1983 Tom Kempinski
play, ‘Duet for One’, vividly conveys the impact of physical disability on the life of a professional person.#p#分頁標題#e#
Film:
You start with the title of the film and year of production, then state the medium, e.g. ‘film’, and then give the name of the director (or producer if director not known); finally, give the name of the film studio and details of any video recording currently available.
Play:
The scripts of plays are usually available in printed form so you should be able to give details of the playwright and the publisher of the script. To reference plays, start with the name of the playwright, then year of publication, title of play (italics or underlined), state medium, e.g. ‘play’, then details of the Act, Scene and/or page number, then publisher information.
Citation: (Twelve Angry Men 1957)
Reference: Twelve Angry Men (1957). Film directed by Sidney Lumet, Hollywood: MGM Studios (available now on MGM ‘Vintage Classics’ video series).
Citation: (Kempinski 1983)
Reference: Kempinski, T. (1983). Duet for One. Play: Act 1, p.21. London: Samuel French Inc.
3.12 REFERENCING ELECTRONIC SOURCES
The Internet is a rich source of information for students. It is also, unfortunately, the unregulated host to sites that have been created by their authors as arenas for their ill-informed and biased opinions.
Reliable Internet sites can certainly be used and cited in assignments. But how can you evaluate Internet sites?
Munger and Campbell (2002) and Rumsey (2004) suggest the following questions asked of sites can help you evaluate the reliability of them:
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Author/Purpose Content Design
¾ Who is the author?
¾ Why has this site been established – is it clear from the introduction?
¾ Is there a link to the author’s Email address?
¾ Does the author have any academic or professional affiliation?
¾ Who is the sponsor of the site?
¾ What is the site’s purpose?
¾ Who is the intended audience for the site?
¾ What are the potential biases or hidden agendas of the site?
¾ Were you connected to this site from a reliable source?
¾ How comprehensive is the site in its coverage?
¾ Is the site regularly updated? When
was the site last updated?
¾ How are sources referenced and documented?
¾ Are the links provided working? (a site that is not being updated, including the hyperlinks, should not be trusted)
¾ On what basis are links selected?
¾ What is the rationale for the provided links to other sites? #p#分頁標題#e#
¾ Is the site easy to navigate and use?Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
¾ Does the resource follow good principles of design, proper grammar, spelling
and style? If it does not, beware!
¾ Does the site include advertising?
Basic Principles of Referencing Electronic Sources
The basic principles of the Harvard Style apply for all electronic sources, e.g. if there is the name or names of authors, start with these, then show year of original publication, if shown (or date stamp of site if any is given), then a title of article (if shown) in italics or underlined, or title of site followed by full details of the website, and finally the date you gained or ‘Accessed’ the information from the site.
Important:
You don’t have separate lists of www sites in your ‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’
sections. Internet sites are incorporated into one alphabetical list of references.
Also, you don’t give the www address as your citation in the text of your assignment! Instead, you put the name of an author, or the source organisation.
if the URL is ridiculously long , for example, stretching over three or more lines, you can give the homepage address and then give a series of keyword search words to take the reader to the relevant screen.
EXAMPLE A: (Online Article or Report)
Citation: (Introna et al 2003)
Reference:
Introna, L., Hayes, N., Blair, L., and Wood, E. (2003). Cultural Attitudes Towards Plagiarism. http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/apppage.cgi?USERPAGE=7508 [Accessed
13/12/2005].
You see from example A above, that in the reference the last names of the authors are shown, followed by their initials, year report was published, title of article, followed by the full website address and then the date the site was
‘Accessed’: the date you visited the site.
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EXAMPLE B: (Government Statistics Online)
Citation: (National Statistics Online 2005)
Reference:
Office for National Statistics (2005). Employment: Rate rises to 74.9% in
3 months to Sept 05.
http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=12 [Accessed
13/12/2005].
In example B, there is no author(s) name(s) shown, so you start with the main source, e.g. Office for National Statistics (ONS), then add the year the data was originally published by the ONS, the title of the online screen information, full details of the website address and finally the date you visited the site.#p#分頁標題#e#
EXAMPLE C: Article from a journal or magazine
These will be in two groups: (a) articles that were originally produced in print form and can be found online; and (b) those that are on-line only.
Article originally produced in print form:
An academic journal article has usually been subject to peer-review scrutiny. The majority of these articles retrieved from the internet are likely to be reproduced unabridged from their original printed forms, so the journal details are referenced as if it was a printed source. You can then simply add ‘Electronic version’ or
‘Online’ to the reference; see fictitious example C1 that follows.
However, if you have any reason to believe changes, amendments or commentaries have been made from the original print version, you should include the URL address and the date you accessed the information; see example C2 that follows.
Example C1
Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing
Studies. Summer, pp.266-272.
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Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing
Studies. Summer, pp.266-272. Available at http://www.JRS.org [Accessed 23
Oct. 2006]
Article in an online magazine (not available in print form; online only)
Give full details of the name of the magazine, year of publication, title, URL address, and date you accessed the information. If an author’s name was shown, then start with this. If not, start with name of magazine or journal, as shown in the example C3 that follows:
C3: Magazine article, no named writer
Microsoft Windows XP (2006) 25 Best hidden programs. Issue 58, May. Available at http://www.windowsxpmagazine.co.uk/ [Accessed 19 July 2006).
EXAMPLE D: Newspaper article
If the name of the journalist or writer is shown, start with this. If not, start with the name of the online newspaper site. Give the title and date of the item or article, and the URL address to take the reader to where the article can be found. Two examples:
Journalist named
Lister, S. (2006). Basic hygiene is failing in a third of NHS hospitals. Times Online.
22 Mar. 2006. Available at TimesOnlinehttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/
article/0,,8122-2097936,00.html [Accessed 24 July 2006]
No journalist named
Times Online (2006). On the flight path of dying Ibis. 24 July 2006. Available at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2282913,00.html [Accessed 24 July
2006].
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EXAMPLE E: (Databases for statistical and company data)
You can use the library Metalib information portal service to gain access to many useful statistical databases, e.g. Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME). The database for statistical and company specific information should always be named, its publisher, along with the title of report, and date information was obtained.
However, if the database is password protected there is no point in giving the URL address; you only give URL addresses in references if the site is publicly accessible.
The first example that follows is an example of referencing using the FAME
database to focus on just one company.
The second example shows a citation and the reference when FAME was used to gather and collate data on three separate companies.
1. Citation: (Dixons Group PLC 2004)
Reference:
Dixons Group PLC (2004). Company Report: Profile. Available from Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME) database, Bureau Van Dijk Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via Metalib 13/12/05].
2. Citation: (FAME Database 2005)
Reference: FAME: Financial Analysis Made Easy (2005). Compilation derived from: Company Annual Reports: PC World; Currys; UniEuro, FAME database, Bureau Van Dijk Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via Metalib 22/04/05].
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EXAMPLE F: (Quoting from the Internet)
Quoting directly from the Internet (or any other source should be done very selectively. Wherever possible try and summarise or paraphrase what you have read.
Quoting an author directly should always be done for a particular purpose, for example, to convey a sense of the ‘voice’ of a particular author or organisation; example:
However, Howard Gardner regards the term ‘domain’ in a completely different way: “The domain in a society can be thought of as the kinds of roles listed in the Yellow Pages of a phone book- anything from Accounting to Zoology” (Gardner 2005).
The reference for this quotation – taken from the ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ (FAQ) section of the author’s website – would be given as follows:
Gardner, H. (2005) Domains, FAQ, p.2, Howard Gardner
Homepages, www.howardgardner.com [Accessed 22/04/05].
EXAMPLE G: (Secondary Sources on the Internet)
You will also encounter many Internet sources that summarise or quote indirectly the words of others. You would treat these Internet sources as secondary sources (see pages 21-22).#p#分頁標題#e#
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For example, on the ‘Friends of the Earth’ (FOE) Internet site, the FOE quote the
Executive Director of Corpwatch and author, Joshua Karliner, as saying that
“…51 of the 100 world's largest economies are corporations”.
If you were unable to locate the primary source (i.e. Joshua Karliner), to check the accuracy of this quotation, you could cite the Friends of the Earth site (although this would not be as reliable as checking out the primary source.
The citation and reference would be as follows:
Citation: (Karliner, as cited by Friends of the Earth, 2004).
Reference:
Friends of the Earth (2005). Corporates: Corporate Power. http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/corporates/issues/corporate_power/ [Accessed 13/12/2005].
EXAMPLE H: (Referencing E-mails)
Significant E-mail messages can also be referenced, providing a record is kept. The following format is recommended:
• Last name of sender, then his or her initials
• Year communication received
• Medium (Email)
• Title or subject of message
• Date communication received
Example:
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Citation: (Brown 2004)
Reference:
Brown, J. (2004) Email to C. Neville re. citing teaching notes, 12/12/2005.
In this example, as you see, the citation in the assignment would be (Brown,
2004), as the sender (Brown) has communicated information to the recipient
(Neville), who can then use this information as a source in an assignment.
However, you should obtain permission from the sender, if possible, to use the correspondence for reference purposes, and you should keep a copy of the correspondence to enable a tutor to read it if required; alternatively, it can be presented as an appendix item.
EXAMPLE I: (Discussion Lists)
Messages from discussion lists can also be used if they contribute in a significant way to any assignment. Start with the last name of the sender of the message, then give his/her initials, year, subject of message, title of discussion list, E-mail address, date message posted onto site and finally, the date the message was Accessed by you.
Example:
Citation: (Braham 2003)
Reference:
Braham, J. (2003). Skills Audit, LDHEN Discussion List,
[email protected]#p#分頁標題#e#, 22/07/2003 [Accessed 25/07/03].
You will need to keep message(s) on file in case a tutor wishes to see them, or they can be included as appendix items.
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QUIZ
Before you look at some example assignments that show referencing in action, try answering the questions in this referencing quiz.
Look at the following situations that can occur when writing assignments and decide if a citation is needed at that point in the assignment.
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams in your assignment. These may be items directly copied or which have been a source of collation for you.
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a particular writer.
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety of sources about what has happened over a period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of dispute or controversy.
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that you believe is important and that you summarise in your assignment.
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of agreement and support amongst commentators.
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced earlier in the assignment.
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and when there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement with your statements or summaries.
8. When using quotations in your assignment.
9. If you copy and paste items from the
Internet where no author’s name is shown.
10.When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own words) another person’s idea that you feel is particularly significant or likely to be a subject of debate.
See page 67 for answers.
EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (1)
(This is an example of referencing in action. It is a report that contains a range of sources, including from the Internet. Note where, when and how references are used to support evidence).
CALL CENTRES IN THE UK: IS THERE A FUTURE FOR THEM? (2.000 words)
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This report will look at the future for call centres in Britain. It will look at current call centre work trends and conditions generally in the UK, use the Yorkshire region of Britain as an exemplar of trends and will discuss predicted work opportunities over the next decade.
#p#分頁標題#e#
Call centres are collective forms of teleworking, where a group of people work on non-domestic premises controlled by a third party. These premises may be called
‘satellite offices’, ‘call centres’, ‘computer resources centres’ and may use workers employed by the parent company or may use sub-contracted workers for particular tasks.
THE RISE OF CALL CENTRES
The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector, focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs, whilst producing a standard branded image to the world. The approach naturally lent itself to large companies with a large, distributed customer bases.
Currently in Britain 800,000 people are employed in 4,000 call centres, but it is predicted that, despite a loss of jobs to India and elsewhere, by 2005 this will
grow to a million workers (DTI 2004). Despite this there is still a future for the UK
call centre sector.
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CALL CENTRES IN YORKSHIRE
The Yorkshire region of the UK is an example of how call centres can flourish. In South Yorkshire, there has been large investment in call centre development, encouraged by EU regional development. Around 6,000 operators are already employed with companies such as Ventura (3,750 staff), Selflex (1,000) and One-
2-One (300); in Doncaster, BT Cellnet employs 900 staff at its call centre. (PSU
1996).
In West Yorkshire, twenty-five call centres had established in Leeds by 2000, employing around 15,000 people and occupying 10% of office space available in the city. Around a third of the Leeds call centres are within traditional single company financial services and the remainder offer a range of services to their clients, including retail sales, mobile phones services and road breakdown services (‘Yorkshire Post’ 24.9.98. p.3.). In Bradford, by 2004, around 7,000 people were employed in call centres, and this is expected to rise to 10,000 by
2007 (Bradford ‘Telegraph and Argus’ 21.06.04. p. 4).
WORK OPPORTUNITIES and WORKING CONDITIONS IN CALL CENTRES
Types of calls are often divided into outbound and inbound. Inbound calls are calls that are initiated by the customer to obtain information, report a malfunction or ask for help. This is substantially different from outbound calls where the agent initiates the call to a customer mostly with the aim to sell a product or a service#p#分頁標題#e#
to that customer.
Call centre staff are often organized in tiers, with the first tier being largely unskilled workers who are trained to resolve issues using a simple script. If the first tier is unable to resolve an issue the issue is escalated to a more highly skilled second tier. In some cases, there may be third or higher tiers of support.Dissertation is provide by Custom Thesis http://www.ttc-switch.com/
A trend originally observed in the US is also becoming apparent in Britain: of a
‘high’ and a ‘low’ end to the services provided. The characteristics of employment at both ends of this spectrum can be summarised, as shown below:
‘High End’ Call Centre Services ‘Low End’ Call Centre Services
¾ Usually involving detailed financial services advice, information and sales
¾ Staff recruited for their knowledge and expertise in these areas
¾ Training of staff a high priority
¾ Emphasis on retaining staff
¾ Staff reasonably well-paid
¾ Operators require little technical knowledge
¾ Generally perform a customer service role, typically within travel, retail and leisure industries
¾ May involve ‘cold selling’
¾ Staff not particularly well paid
Turnover of staff as high as 80%
(source: Huws 1999)
However, all is not well in call centres, particularly regarding working conditions.
A report from Income Data Services (IDS 1998) found large variations in pay and work in UK call centres. This was emphasised in a recent report commissioned by the Health and Safety Executive that suggested some UK call centres should be compared to Victorian 'dark satanic mills'. The research found that employees at the worst call centres felt powerless and tied to their desks. Many complained that low wages, poor working conditions and repetitive tasks led to poor job
satisfaction and high levels of depression (Management Issues 2005).
It would appear that where the dominant focus in any call centre is on answering calls as quickly as possible, the stress levels rise. The complaints by customers about call centre services include those of the length of time in queues,
automated menu systems, premium rate lines, having to ‘communicate’ with staff confined to scripts and the lack of continuity of contact with operators between calls. These quality related problems appear to have risen for a number of reasons:
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¾ The call centre industry is unregulated and no independent body exists to represent the views of consumers.
¾ Call centres often try to match the number of available operators with the volume of calls coming in, but often the number of calls exceeds this, which results in long queues.
¾ Some call centres judge operators on the number of calls they take, and set unrealistic targets so customer service suffers.
¾ Call centre operators are often given a script, which is meant to cover all possible scenarios, so are unable to give an answer to an unscripted query.
¾ Operators at offshore call centres do not necessarily have the knowledge of
UK culture and language to answer every customer query (BBC 2004).
However, there appears to be an increasing recognition of the need for UK call centres to improve the quality of customer experiences. For many businesses, the call centres become the yardstick by which they are judged. In a competitive situation, a customer who has had a poor experience is likely to take his or her business elsewhere.
THE FUTURE FOR CALL CENTRES
At one time in the recent past, the call centre industry in Europe was dubbed a
‘bubble market’ after a study into the future of call centres by the London based economic consultants, Business Strategies, warned that the growth of Internet and automatic voice response technology will make call centre operators redundant (Business Strategies 2000). Another communications company, the OTR Group, suggested around the same time, that one in five jobs in all call centres in Europe would disappear over the next decade (Financial Times 1999). The increasing use of automatic voice response technology (AVR) was thought to reduce the need for direct operator interventions, and that the growth of Internet sales would reduce operator-customer contacts.
However, in recent years this prediction has been revised. AVR technology is currently unpopular with many callers, who often prefer more human interaction. In Britain, the Yorkshire and Tyneside accents are popular with callers from within
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the UK and from other countries, and call centres report that customers from other countries, particularly the USA, are noticeably inclined to lengthen their call times to engage Northern British operators in friendly discussion. British Asian call centre operators are particularly in demand to communicate with customers who speak no English. The relative low cost of commercial property and lower wages, compared to the South of England, is also cited as attractive factor with employers, and particularly with the public sector.#p#分頁標題#e#
As mentioned earlier, another more serious potential threat to many UK call centre jobs comes with the increasing ‘globalisation’ of work and multinational companies have subcontracted work to English speaking countries in South East Asia. In July 2003, the market intelligence company, Key Note, predicted that that by 2008 the UK would lose 97,000 call centre jobs to the Indian sub continent (E- Logistics 2003). British Telecom currently gets much of its data entry work done
in India and British Airways has established a call centre in Bombay to handle its
bookings (The Observer 2003).
It is certainly true that UK call centre jobs have been lost as employers look to cut costs and relocate overseas. However, USDAW, one of the main trade unions, in the call centre industry has drawn attention to differences in the levels of service between UK and overseas call centres. Referring to studies conducted by a research firm, ContactBabel of 290 UK call centre directors and managers, and of
44 Indian call centre operation, they highlighted that:
• on average, UK agents answer 25 per cent more calls each hour than their
Indian counterparts, and resolve 17 per cent more of these calls first time;
• UK call centre workers tend to stay with their company for well over three years, while the ‘burn out ‘ rates in this £1 billion a year industry in India are extremely high, with an estimated one in three workers quitting within a year.
• more than a third of callers to India have to ring back at least a second time
(UK has a first-time resolution rate of over 90 per cent);
• almost a third of Indian call centres do not measure customer satisfaction, while very few perform any pro-active quality checking (USDAW 2004).
It does appear then, that the call centre industry in India appears now to be encountering some of the same problems that emerged in the West and is finding
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it harder to retain workers as the economy there strengthens and career options for well-qualified workers increase. Operators working at a distance from customers are also likely to feel remote from them: physically, socially and culturally. There is no shared understanding of place and society that often underpins discussion between people from similar geographical backgrounds (The Observer 2003).
The recent DTI report suggests that the expansion of call centre services in the
UK is likely to be in the realm of more specialisation, with UK call centre operators offering a more informed advisory and information services. UK operators are also likely to be expected to use, at least in the short to medium tems, a wider range
of communication technology, than operators in other countries (DTI 2004).#p#分頁標題#e#
A likely scenario for the future of call centres globally is one where call centres
use a mixture of Internet and operator services. By 2010, it is estimated that 900 million people worldwide will be using the Internet and already a quarter of UK
call centres have staff dealing with Email communications from customers. Developments, such as Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) and Internet provision enables call centres to diversify their products and services. CTI
enables call centres to offer support services to the online retail market. Although
only a small percentage of sales in the UK are currently conducted through the Internet, this market is growing rapidly. Call centre staff will need to develop more advanced computer skills in the future and are likely to communicate both by Email and verbally with customers.
CONCLUSION
The future for call centres in Britain is certainly not as gloomy as predicted in the late 1990s, provided that call centres respond to the need for more personal, more responsive and bi-lingual modes of contact with customers. There is a particularly need in Britain, to offer more specialist bi-lingual services to customers and particularly Asian language services in multi-ethnic areas.
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Bibliography
Asia Business Today (2006). Outsourcing: Is India to be Blamed?
http://www.asiabusinesstoday.org/briefings/ [Accessed 11/01/2006].
BBC (2004). Brassed Off Britain: Call Centres. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bob/callcentres/ [Accessed 09/08/2004].
Business Strategies (2000). Tomorrow’s Call Centres: a research study. www.business-strategies.co.uk [Accessed 02/01/2001].
DTI: Department for Trade and Industry (2004) The UK Contact Centre Industry:
a study’, London: Department for Trade and Industry.
E-Logistics (2003). Call centres - an inexorable flight?
http://www.elogmag.com/magazine/29/call-centres.shtml, [Accessed 20/6/04].
Financial Times. 23.8.1999, p.3.
Health and Safety Executive (2004). Psychosocial Working Conditions in Great
Briain in 2004. London: Health and Safety Executive.
Huws, U (1993). Teleworking in Britain: a Report to the Employment Department.
Research Series No 18, Oct 1993. London: Department of Employment.
Huws, U (1996). eWorking: an Overview of the Research. London: Department of
Trade and Industry.
Huws, U (1999). Virtually There: The Evolution of Call Centres. Report: Mitel
Telecom Ltd.#p#分頁標題#e#
IDS: Income Data Services (1998). Pay and Conditions in Call Centres 1996. www.incomesdata.co.uk/index.html [Accessed 20/06/2004].
Management Issues (2005). Call Centres are Modern Day Satanic Mills. http://www.management- issues.com/display_page.asp?section=researchandid=1063 [Accessed
20/07/2005].
The Observer. ‘Bombay Calling…’ 07/12/2003, p.19.
PSU: Policy Research Unit (1996) Shaping the Future: an economic and labour market assessment of Yorkshire and Humberside. Leeds Metropolitan University/ Leeds Training and Enterprise Council.
USDAW (2004). Indian vs UK Call Centres: New reports Find Faults in Both. www.publictechnology.net/modules.php?op=modloadandname=Newsandfile=artic leandsid=442, [Accessed 20/06/2004].
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You will notice the list of sources above is headed
‘Bibliography’. This is because the student has included items that have been directly cited plus included other sources that have proven to be useful as background reading material.
EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (2)
(This is an example of an advanced essay, written in a traditional style, of the level expected at postgraduate level and which again demonstrates referencing in action. Note in particular the use of secondary and multiple sources on page 60).
Title:
How can the concepts outlined in the models for managing change be useful in life planning? Give examples to illustrate your answer.
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‘Change is not made without inconvenience, even from worse to better’ (Samuel Johnson). Johnson’s observation summarises a paradox that many people feel: the tension between remaining in a familiar state, or making a change; a change that is likely to cause some ‘inconvenience’, or more likely, uncertainty. Therein lies the paradox: it is tempting for many people to stay with a situation that has the comfort of familiarity, rather than risk moving into territory for them as yet uncharted. But this assumes a choice over the matter. People are often propelled unwillingly and unexpectedly into situations not of their choosing.
The essay will present and discuss some models for managing change for people in three broad categories: first, those who exercise discretionary choice over a given life situation; second, those who are faced with choices they would prefer not to make, but nevertheless have ultimate control of the process; and third, those who have change thrust arbitrarily on them by fate in all its many forms. The examples given will be related to how practitioners charged with the responsibility of managing or supporting others facing change might support the#p#分頁標題#e#
‘change-seekers’ or ‘change-victims’ concerned. In a business context these
practitioners are likely to be members of a Human Resources team, but could also include external trainers, management or life planning consultants.
Change is not received or perceived in a homogeneous way. Gerard Egan, for example, draws a distinction between ‘discretionary and non-discretionary change’ (Egan 1994). In the former, the individual has a choice about change to make and makes it willingly. The outcome may be ‘inconvenient’ or challenging,
but the change, nevertheless, is desired and embraced. In the case of ‘non- discretionary change’, people are faced with situations that are deeply uncomfortable, but they stay in trouble because it is easier to do so than make the emotional effort to change. Egan traces the roots of inertia in emotional passivity, learned helplessness, disorganisation or ‘vicious circle’ self-defeating behaviour. The ‘non-discretionary’ nature of change is because non-change is likely to result in the person concerned becoming ill or making others suffer. The third form of change is by Harold Kushner in his book of the same name: ‘When Bad Things Happen to Good People’ (Kushner 1981). These ‘bad things’ manifest themselves in crisis, misfortunes or traumas in all their malignant shades. These
things happen because they happen- but some models of change can at least help
in the understanding of process, and support for, those involved.
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For those actively wanting and seeking change, Maslow’s theory of Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow 1968) offers an explanation as to why individuals seek transition and change in their lives. As basic and intermediate needs (food, shelter, affection) are met, aspirations rise, and people reach out to meet more intrinsic needs, for example, the chance to gain more status at work or opportunity to develop a new interest. In this situation, the ‘Managing Change Approach’ (Coleman 1991) offers a model for plotting the stages involved. Coleman envisages six steps, including the first trigger step of ‘transition’: a sense of wanting change and being able to identify and articulate the reasons and feelings for this. This is an important first step, as it allows the decision-maker a sense of control over the process and gain ‘ownership’ of the idea. The decision-maker proceeds then to steps two and three: information gathering, and considering the options available. This leads to a choice (step four), action (step five) and later a process of reassessment and evaluation (step six).
For this model to succeed there are, arguably, a number of assumptions to make about the discretionary decision-makers. Veronica McGivney suggests a number of favourable determinants in adult lives that can motivate them to return to formal learning (McGivney 1993), and these can be adapted to connect with the Coleman model. The first determinant of success for the Coleman model is that the person concerned has a belief that he or she could cope with the transition and final change desired. The second is that the person concerned knows, or can#p#分頁標題#e#
find out, where to seek the information necessary to make an informed decision. The third and fourth, crucially, is that the person concerned has enough optimism about the future to contemplate change – and feels that he or she has some control over their life. These latter points are critical pre-requisites for those plotting a life course through the Coleman model of managing change.
The Coleman model connects too, with one advanced by Bill Law in recent years: a ‘Career Learning Theory’, although Law has been at pains to point out that the theory is relevant to all life choices, not just vocationally biased ones (Law 1997). Law proposes a four stage model: for managing change: sensing, sifting, focusing and understanding. The first three of these connect with Coleman’s middle and latter stages, although Law advances his third stage (focusing) by asserting that this is achieved by a decision maker engaging with three specific questions: is the choice idea salient; is it valued (in terms of acceptable to self and others); and is it credible (perceived as a sensible or wise decision by self or others)? Law’s fourth stage: ‘understanding’ is explained in terms of an individual’s ability to justify overall a particular course of action chosen. This connects with Coleman’s first stage, but Law pursues the issue further by arguing ‘understanding’ also relates to an ability to identify and explain the relationship of past events to
future action, which forms the basis for sustainable action. The process of
understanding is also about being able to anticipate or visualise the probabilities or consequences of actions.
Coleman’s model appears to assume, whilst Law’s is more explicit in this respect, that making choices involves a certain level of risk-taking. Law explicitly points out that action always entails risk, but that risk can be assessed so that probabilities are estimated:
Autonomous action must involve some such visualisation (whether
rational or not) of ‘this is what will probably happen if I do this...’ It requires the imagination of possible selves in possible futures’ (p.65).
Perhaps the Coleman and Law models are at their most salient in relation to confident, intelligent people who are faced with relatively straightforward economic-related decisions: career, work, accommodation, money. But perhaps
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they are less applicable when considering change in the realms of human emotion? The role of practitioners however, in these discretionary choice situations can be one of ‘oiling the wheels’ of change for decision-maker: including supplying information, listening, encouraging and generally offering support and guidance. The process of change is likely to happen without the practitioner’s support, but it can happen often faster and more effectively with it.#p#分頁標題#e#
However, a common scenario is one where a person is faced with stark choice, particularly of the emotionally charged variety; the choice is often change or suffer. At one level, there is ‘choice’, but has Egan has argued it is of the ‘non- discretionary’ kind. Egan has noted that people in this situation can vacillate and remain static, rather than face change. This emotional stasis has been related to both lack of confidence - that a particular choice path will lead to certain desirable outcomes; or pessimism about outcomes that might follow from the change (Bandura 1991). In this scenario, the ‘Stages of Change’ model proposed by Prochaska and DiClemente (1984) offers a way of understanding the process of change – or a relapse back into the ‘old habits’. Prochaska and DiClemente related their model specifically to smoking, but it can be equally applicable to any pattern of behaviour rooted in addiction, habit or compulsion. In this model, the process
of change begins with ‘contemplation’, and the notion that change is for the
better. However, there can be an inner voice that warns: change is ‘risky’, so ‘why change?’ This can produce oscillation between wanting and not wanting change.
However, whatever the accelerant might prove to be, the person concerned can
‘commit’ and be ready for change, which propels them forward, and leads to the
‘maintenance’ stage, of maintaining change. The new situation in time becomes the norm, but there is the possibility of relapse, and going back to the stating point of the circle.
The practitioner has a particularly key role to play in helping in the process of reflection at these different stages in the decision-maker’s life. Egan suggests six ways of helping people in this situation strengthen self-efficacy to stay on track with a chosen decision. The first is to help people develop any necessary skills to succeed in the belief that self-efficacy is based on ability. The second is to offer feedback on any deficiencies in performance. This helps decision-makers avoid
situations of self-delusion where they rationalise any lapse or diversion from their original goals. The third is to help the decision-maker see how a change of behaviour or direction produces results, which connects with the fourth: about promoting others as role models of success. Steps five and six are related to reducing the anxiety faced by people overly fearful of failure: by encouragement and being generally supportive, and reminding the decision-maker of their original motivations (Egan 1994).
The third group (the change victims) requires of practitioners the greatest level of understanding about the anguish of change that people can experience. People
are often unwilling victims of change, including redundancy, sudden bereavement, financial disaster. Many of the models of change that are applicable to this situation are similar in tracing a pattern of shock, guilt, bewilderment (or anger),#p#分頁標題#e#
a search for meaning, then gradual acceptance of the change (see Sinfield (1985)
and Coleman and Chiva (1991), in relation to redundancy; and Kubler-Ross, (1970), in relation to death and dying). Some of the earliest studies that noted this pattern date back to the 1930s with studies of unemployment, particularly the experience of older workers (Eisenberg and Lazarsfield (1938), as cited in Sinfield (1985), p.191). These noted then the impact of shock on the newly unemployed, followed by an active hunt for work, during which the individual is still optimistic. But when all job-seeking efforts fail, the person becomes anxious and suffers depression, which can lead to fatalism and adaptation to a narrower state.
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More recent studies have confirmed this pattern still applies today, particularly for the older worker (see Harrison (1976) for example). Kubler-Ross (1970) and Coleman and Chiva (1991), both note that anger is often a feature of response to sudden changes, as well as guilt, self-doubt and depression. The anger is of the
‘why me’ variety, and when there is often no rational answer to this question,
depression can follow from the realisation of the powerlessness of individuals in the path of unstoppable forces.
There is however, a gradual acceptance of and adaptation to the situation. Alvin Toffler suggests too, that an ability to cope (and recover) from traumatic change depends on the relative security of other aspects of our lives. He argues that we
can cope with enormous amounts of change, pressure, complexity and confusion, provided at least one area of our life remains relatively stable (Toffler 1970). He suggests that there are five main ‘Stability Zones’:
1. Ideas: for example, deeply felt religious beliefs, or strong commitment to a philosophy, political ideology or cause;
2. Places: places that individuals can relate to, on either a large scale (a country) or smaller scale, such as home, street or even office;
3. Things: favourite, familiar, comforting possessions, and especially things related to childhood or emotional events;
4. People: particularly valued and enduring relationships with others, especially friends;
5. Organisation: institutes, clubs or societies can also offer an important source of stability and focus for self-identity.
The role of the practitioner with responsibility for managing or supporting change in all three situations outlined is to firstly ascertain whether the person concerned is a discretionary or non-discretionary change seeker, or thirdly a change-victim, as each require different types of help or support, in ways outlined earlier. The practitioner’s support for the change-victim can be particularly valuable. This support can take the form of encouraging the individual to talk through the change experiences and to release feelings of anger. An understanding of these stages can help the practitioner locate a stage the change-victim appears to be in and to assist that person to begin to explore relevant new life options and#p#分頁標題#e#
possibilities. Toffler’s idea of Stability Zones is especially useful in this context too,
in allowing the person concerned to put change into an overall life perspective and to value the other more stable parts of their life.
References
Bandura, A. (1991). Human Agency: The Rhetoric and the Reality. American
Psychologist, 46, pp.157-161.
Coleman, A. and Chiva, A. (1991). Coping with Change- focus on retirement.
London: Health Education Authority
Egan, G. (1994). The Skilled Helper: a problem-management approach to helping.
Belmont: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Harrison, R. (1976). The Demoralizing Experience of Prolonged Unemployment.
Department of Employment Gazette, 84, April, pp.330-49.
Kubler-Ross, E. (1970). On Death and Dying. London: Tavistock Publications. Kushner, H.S. (1981). When Bad Things Happen to Good People. London: Pan
Books.
Law, B. (1996). A Career-Learning Theory, in A.Watts et al, Rethinking Careers
Education and Guidance: Theory, Policy and Practice. London: Routledge.
McGivney, V. (1993). Adult Learners, Education and Training. London: Routledge/Open University.
Maslow, A (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand. Prochaska and DiClemente (1984). Stages and Processes of Self-Change of
Smoking: Towards an Integrated model of Change. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, vol. 51 (3) pp. 390-35.
Sinfield, A. (1985). ‘Being Out of Work’. In C.R. Littler (ed.) The Experience of
Work. Aldershot: Gower/Open University.
Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. N.Y: Random House.
In this assignment the sources above are listed under the heading References’. This is because the student has made use of everything read in preparation for writing the assignment and cited all the sources in the text.
Answers to the quiz on page 52
You had to decide whether a citation in the text was needed in the following situations.
Yes No
1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams in your assignment. These may be items directly copied or which have been a source of collation for you.
√
2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a particular writer.
√
3. You summarise information drawn from a variety of sources about what has happened over a period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of dispute or controversy.
√
4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that you believe is important and that you summarise in your assignment.
√
5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of agreement and support amongst commentators. #p#分頁標題#e#
√
6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced earlier in the assignment.
√
7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and when there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement with your statements or summaries.
√
8. When using quotations in your assignment.
√
9. If you copy and paste items from the Internet where no author’s name is shown. (You should cite the name of the Organisation or website).
√
10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own words) another person’s idea that you feel is particularly significant or likely to be a subject of debate.
√
ENDNOTE
EndNote is a useful bibliographic tool, which can help you keep track of the books, journals and other sources that you have used to write reports or essays.
If you enter reference information for all of the resources that you use into EndNote, you can then use the program to create bibliographies for your essays, theses and dissertations. Once the basic task of manually entering references has been mastered, you will be able to move on to formatting your bibliography, linking it to your Microsoft Word documents to create references in the text, and exporting and importing references, including the University of Bradford Library Catalogue.
You can use EndNote free on Cluster Room PCs at the University. To buy a copy of Endnote for personal use, please complete the application form at www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/endnote/about.php and take it for validation to either JB Priestley Building Reception or the School of Management Library counter. You will be asked to provide proof of your status at the University.
A comprehensive EndNote manual is available in the School of Management and
J B Priestley Libraries. Ask at Reception where to find these.
NEED HELP WITH REFERENCING?
If you need help in referencing any source in an assignment, you can contact Colin Neville, Effective Learning Officer for the School and the author of this booklet.
Email: [email protected]
Telephone: (01274) 234414
Visit: room 0.10 Airedale Building, School of Management
FURTHER READING
These are all the titles in booklets in the ‘Effective Learning’ series:
1. Return to Part-time Study
2. Return to Full-time Study
3. The First Semester
4. Time Management
5. Accelerated Learning
6. 20 Tips for Effective Learning
7. Six Steps to Effective Reading
8. Effective Note Making
9. Effective Writing
10.Essay Writing (1) stages of essay writing
11.Essay Writing (2) planning and structuring your essays#p#分頁標題#e#
12.Essay Writing (3) finding your own voice in essays
13. References and Bibliographies
14. Report Writing
15. Pass Your Exams
16. Your Assignment Results – and how to improve them
17. Presentations
18. Group Work
19. Introduction to Research and Research Methods
20. Foundations of Good Research
21. Writing Your Management Project Report or Dissertation
You can download any of these from the School of Management Homepages: Resources– Effective Learning link, or contact the Effective Learning Service, tel. 4414 (internal), Email: [email protected], or visit room 0.10 Airedale Building at the School of Management.
The booklets can also be found in the School of Management library, in the foyer of the Airedale Building and in the main entrance/foyer of the Emm Lane building. In the School of Management and J.B. Priestley libraries, there is a study skills section at D.371.30281
RECOMMENDED READING:
British Standards Institution (1990). Recommendations for Citing and Referencing
Published Material, BS 5605: 1990. London: BSI.
Bradford University Library, Cite ‘em Right: how to give good bibliographic references: this is an excellent guide to using references and is available in both a printed version and on the Internet: available from the University libraries, and online at www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/cdrom/cite.pdf
Li, X. and Crane, N. B. (1996). Electronic Styles: a handbook for citing electronic information. 2nd ed. Medford, N.J.: Information Today.
Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism.
Maidenhead: Open University Press (available from August 2007).
Walker, J.R. and Taylor, T (1998) The Columbia Guide to Online Style. New York: Columbia University Press. (This is a useful guide to referencing all forms of electronic information).
SOME RECOMMENDED INTERNET SITES ON REFERENCING
For referencing legal sources: The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal
Authorities at http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml
For information on how to avoid plagiarism: The Plagiarism Advisory Service at http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/
For advice on when and how to cite the work of authors: Central European
University at http://www.ceu.hu/writing/sources.htm
A useful guide for citing Internet sources: Bournemouth University:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citing_internet_sourc.html
More on the Harvard Style of referencing: Bournemouth University:#p#分頁標題#e#
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html
OTHER USEFUL STUDY SKILLS GUIDES:
Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skills Handbook. London: Palgrave.
(This book contains lots of bite-sized chunks of advice and information presented in a lively and visually interesting way. This is an excellent general study skills guide for all undergraduate or postgraduate students).
Giles, K. and Hedge, N. (1998) The Manager’s Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. (This is a study skills guide written for business studies students and contains advice and information presented in a clear, readable and subject-specific way).
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution (1990). Recommendations for citing and referencing published material, BS 5605: 1990. London: BSI.
French, D. (1996). How to Cite Legal Authorities. London: Blackstone.
Li, X. and Crane, N. B. (1996). Electronic styles: a handbook for citing electronic information. 2nd ed. Medford, N.J.: Information Today.
The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (2005).
http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml). [Accessed 10/01/2006]. Rumsey, S. (2004). How to Find Information: a Guide for researchers. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Scarfe, G. (1982). Gerald Scarfe. London: Thames and Hudson.
Turabian, K. L. (1982). A manual for writers of research papers, theses and dissertations, 1st British edition, J. E. Spink (ed). London: Heinemann.
Walker, J.R. and Taylor, T. (1998). The Columbia guide to online style. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Yang, D. and Clarke, P. (2004). ‘Review of the current intellectual property system in China’, International Journal Technology Transfer and Commercialisation, vol. 3, No. 1, pp.12-37.
*********************************************************
THANKS
The author would like to thank Dr. David Spicer and Dr. Deli Yang at the School of
Management for their help in its initial preparation.
© Colin Neville at the School of Management wrote this booklet. It must not be copied or reproduced without the permission of the author. Contact: [email protected].
Last amended January 2007.