分析和批判性討論組織雇傭關系的性質和宗旨以及工作設計，規劃，薪酬和雇傭之間的關系-Analyse and Critically Discuss the Nature and Purpose of th
05-09, 2014
分析和批判性討論組織雇傭關系的性質和宗旨以及工作設計，規劃，薪酬和雇傭之間的關系-Analyse and Critically Discuss the Nature and Purpose of the Employment Relationship for Organizations and the Relationship Between Work Design, Planning, Pay and the Employment Relationship.
Introduction 引言
術語“雇傭關系”描述的整體關系的各個方面時與他人交換的一種關系。據南昆士蘭大學顯示（2004年）這種關系基本上都是由員工與雇主支付的交換。雖然主要關系是雇主與雇員之間，隨著組織的發展，規模和數量越來越多，因此員工（金森2003年）變得多樣性，每個都有自己特定的“心理契約”。
The term ‘employment-relationship’ is interchangeable with others when describing aspects of the overall relationship. According to USQ (2004) this relationship is basically the exchange of work by employees for pay from employers. While the primary relationship is that between the employer-employee, as organisations have evolved, grown in size and number, so too has the diversity of employees, each with their own particular ‘psychological contract’ (Hodgkinson 2003).
既定的生產性就業關系的目的是為了公平地處理各種關系和化解矛盾（2004 USQ）。違反這一心理契約將對忠誠度，積極性和工作人員的組織承諾（希斯洛普2003年）有負面影響。
The purpose of a defined and productive employment relationship is to equitably manage the various relationships, and resolve conflicts (USQ 2004). Breaching this psychological contract potentially will have negative implications for loyalty, motivation, and worker commitment to the organisation (Hislop 2003). This essay will discuss some of the factors in the workplace, which have an effect on the principals at each end of this relationship, and maintaining such diverse relations within a context of equity to each. #p#分頁標題#e#The objective of business is to increase profits by increasing the effectiveness of production. The Human Resource Management (HRM) activities of an organisation involve the monitoring of this primary employment relationship and the factors that affect it. This essay will discuss the ‘planning’ tools used to monitor these factors, such as analysis, descriptions, and evaluation and how they are used by the organisation to meet existing obligations and future opportunities.
Within a framework of equitably applied rewards across the various employment relationships, this essay will discuss how motivational theories such as reinforcement and expectancy can assist with a range of additional options to supplement financial rewards for increasing employee performances. This compliments the discussions of the variable nature of both principals in this employment relationship, and the re-design of the organisation’s work through the three levels of the organisation.
Body 正文
The term ‘employment relationship’ is defined in the literature in various contexts interchangeable with terms such as employee relations; industrial relations; or labour relations. Dessler Griffiths, Lloyd-Walker, & Williams (1999) suggest ‘employment relations’ focus on the employer and how the organisation treats its employees, within a number of standard models, contingent upon the particular community culture and the organisational norms operating therein.
The broader effect is this primary employer-employee relationship is affected by other factors in the work environment. For the employer these factors include employee advocates such as trade unions; and the orientation and agenda of the Federal government’s legislation (in such areas as Anti-discrimination, Workplace Health and Safety, and the Industrial Relations Act 1988). This last Act expanded the formation of collective (workplace) agreements on pay and work conditions, without industry-wide implications (Dessler et al. 1999). The Conservative-party Federal government introduced the Workplace Relations Act 1996, which removed unfair dismissal, compulsory unionism and other ‘union-friendly’ provisions of the previous Labour Federal government’s Industrial Relations Act 1988. #p#分頁標題#e#
The four variables having an impact on an organisation are the external environment (including competition, regulation and community obligations); size; business strategy; and (changing) technology (Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe &Waters-Marsh 2001) all of which are shaping the strategic direction of the organisation, and also the organisational structure best suited to achieve those goals. The strategic direction, organisational structure, and culture in turn affect the type of relationship it will have with its employees. For example a mechanistic organisational structure is ‘characterized by extensive departmentalization, high formalisation (of work design through rules and procedures) and a mostly downward information system’ Robbins et al. (2001, p.605). Whereas more organic organisational structures vary the degree of employee work design and in fact, the relative value of employees, being core or non-core to the business’s activity (Hartman 2003 in USQ 2004).
From the employee perspective, Hartman (2003 in USQ 2004) refers to categories of employees, differentiated by their-needs and employment-suitability. One level of classification is fulltime, part-time, out-sourced, and contractual employees. A more discriminate classification, into 17 classes (CCH Australia 2002 in USQ 2004) while are legalistic, also assists with the imagery of the diverse (employee) expectations and (employer) obligations for each category. For example, disabled workers are given increased opportunities to participate in employment, subject to safeguards from exploitation. Similarly, youth, probationary, or apprentices can begin a career at low pay within a recognised framework of increasing benefits related to increased competencies and experience.
In addition to the formal legal commitments arising out of each category’s relationship, is the ‘psychological contract’ referred to by Rousseau (2001) in Hodgkinson (2003). The societal culture and organisational norms shape the employee’s schema, which in turn has implications for managers and employers as to the motivational factors for employees. Long-term (core) employees are provided, and expect benefits such as superannuation, accumulated sick leave entitlements or other compensation to remain, whereas the relationship with part-time and more casual employees have less loyalty to the organisation so are not provided, and do not expect the same opportunities for employer-provided training and development (Hartman 2003 in USQ 2004). #p#分頁標題#e#
The observation of a decline in traditional full-time employment of core staff, has given rise to the prediction future organisations using more employees from outside (Hartman 2003 in USQ 2004). The significance of this development is how the organisations will manage these new work arrangements. Currently the use of control practices, is giving rise to a ‘contract culture’, where there is reported lowering of levels of organisation loyalty across all workers (Hislop 2003). It is further argued by Hislop (2003) that developing this loyalty is also a key issue in retention of highly skilled, external part-time employees, ‘who will provide extra discretionary effort and be generally more willing to share their knowledge within the organisation’ (Hislop 2003, p. 8).
Davies, Taylor and Savery (2001) conducted a study within the hotel accommodation industry, which uses mainly casual and part-time employees. The organisations, particularly the smaller establishments, are reliant on a numerically and functionally flexible external workforce. The study reported on the research conducted by Cornell University, which found a high number of innovative HR practices involving training and development. Nearly 90% of respondents in that study attributed reduced turnover, an indicator for increased commitment, to increased staff training.
Human resource planning involves being aware of the external environment the organisation is operating. It essentially determines what jobs are required to fulfill the corporate goals; what skills are required to complete that job; whether the staff for that job can be found amongst internal staff or outside (with or without further training) Dessler et al. (1999). With economic and demographic changes, the numbers in each category of workers vary. It is no longer just a cost factor for the organisation to train and develop internal staff or bring in skilled employees on an outsourced or temporary basis. As noted in Hartman (2003 in USQ 2004) while external recruitment provided immediate access to skilled labour, it changes the way such costs are managed, and brought about more rapid change into the organisation. This matter affects the existing employment relationships within the organisation.
#p#分頁標題#e#Kennedy (2003) noted increased numbers of people attracted to the part-time category of employment because of non-work benefits such as more free time or responsibilities for caring for family members. This was also an attractive option for employers in flexible work schedules. Davies et al. (2001) argued this theme, where the ‘adaptability’ of part-time employees who have been developed to have functional flexibility increased their levels of organisational commitment, which reduced turnover costs.
‘Equity theory states that people in social exchange relationships believe that rewards should be distributed according to the level of individual contribution’ Levine (1993, p.2). Robins et al. (1999) refers to the ratio between inputs (work effort) with outcomes (rewards) which are compared with those of others. Where inequity is perceived to exist, people reduce the distress it causes by varying this ratio. They respond by a number of means, all designed to return to parity. The implications for employers are that if a perception of inequity exists, this is demotivating for the employee. They may reduce their input such as work slower or take time off; produce more quantity at the expense of quality; temporarily suppress lower self-esteem, which may flare at a later inappropriate time; or quit.
Dessler et al. (1999) the process of job analysis is to ascribe what jobs are currently being done and determine the kind of person required to fill that job. It is a central feature of HR functions, especially in a changing environment. It is how the employees achieve the organisations goals; and whether those goals are being achieved, or what needs to be changed (goals, job descriptions or employees). The ‘job description is a record of the activities, accountabilities and requirements of a job’ (USQ 2004), and is used in assessing performance, allocating rewards and planning the work of the organisation.
Performance appraisal is a line-management tool to compare current performance with expectations arising from the job description, planning and development. Davies et al. (2001) noted even casual and part-time staff desire feedback on performance and own-career development and planning. In terms of allocating rewards the supervisor can illicit what is important to the employee, such as personal and professional goals, and therefore identify motivators. Wilson (1999, p. 5) noted people ‘(employees) may be dissatisfied or satisfied with aspect of their lives; be estranged or stressed; have differing life-stages; variable attitudes and experiences’, all of which provide variables for the supervisor to consider when exercising control. #p#分頁標題#e#
Job evaluation is the process of analysing the worth to the organisation of a job and the compensation provided to employees to perform those tasks. External rates of pay for similar jobs constantly change with the market (Kennedy 2003), and even decline. Differences between employers within a United States city can vary 50% with no change in job description (Levine 1993). Reducing the pay rate, particularly the fixed component, of an existing employee is difficult when that employee is performing satisfactorily. However it is not economically justified for the organisation to continue to pay above-market rates when it could hire new staff for less.
Several methods can be used, such as ranking. This is where two jobs are compared and decision made as to which is more difficult, require greater skills, or is more important, whatever is the determinate; and this process is applied across the organisation. Whilst this is simple and most widely used, it can be unfair and difficult to justify some decisions (Chang and Kleiner 2002). Systems that are more complex involve factorising jobs, and then either assigning points for each or compare these factors against scales. Combination plans using ‘five basic factors of responsibility, authority, knowledge, skill and working conditions’, are used by most companies, to exploit their advantages (Chang and Kleiner 2002, p.78). These factors used to provide an initial pay scale, but as compensation packages contain variable components, this flexibility can be used to reward organisational objectives.
Reinforcement theory arises from the work of B. F. Skinner, and states to change the behaviour of a subject then assign a corrective consequence to that particular activity. If the purpose is to motive positively an employee, such as increase job performance, then the employer should provide a ‘good’ consequence to the desired specific activity. Similarly ‘bad’ consequences result from undesirable activity. Bergman & Scarpello (2001, p. 109 in USQ 2004) state that this practice then leads to the employee learning from past experiences to provide ‘secondary reinforcers’ such as praise or financial gain, which managers ‘manipulate to motivate employee behaviour in the workplace’. However if those requirements are achieved then the employer must act accordingly; failing to honor those reinforcements is anti-motivational and negates any future attempt to do so. #p#分頁標題#e#
Robbins et al. (1999) makes the claim Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory is the most widely accepted explanation of motivation. The theory argues the employee will act in a certain way if the effort will be recognised; that the recognition will result in a reward; and if the reward is attractive to the employee. The implication is that the individuals within the workforce have even greater variation as to what is personally attractive, and therefore what will be a motivator.
Direct pay strategies such as increased pay for increased performance has been the basic strategy of businesses in the West to motivate employees (Romero and Kleiner 2000) and is most aligned with expectancy theory; however in Eastern Europe, the incentive of job-security increased performances. According to Robbins et al. (2001) when pay levels are sufficient to satisfy Maslow’s hygiene factor, it eliminates job dissatisfaction, but fails to become a motivator. A study by Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) cited the findings of Allen, Lucero, and Van Norman (1997) of the positive effects of affiliation, esteem and growth needs. Arnolds and Boshoff (2002, p.715) found ‘to employees their pay is a barometer which shows that the firm values their contributions and that their inputs contribute to the prosperity of the firm’. They found that pay was a better motivator when it was linked to ‘fringe benefits’ such as in-store discounts, in-house ceremonies; or personal acknowledgements.
Schein (1971) in Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) found that an employee’s personality and particularly their self-esteem is an important determinate to job performance. The research cited (Korman, 1971; Tharenou, 1979) which predicted work activities of employees’ dependent upon the level of their self-esteem. High levels were associated with positive and desirable organisational activities. It was found higher pay was not linked to self-esteem, and suggested strategies to improve teamwork and the ‘image of the employee among his/her co-workers could be the recipe for increased job performance’ (Arnolds and Boshoff 2002, p.709). Their earlier study (2000) found that Maslow’s higher-level need of growth, which could be activated by learning new tasks, work challenges, autonomy and decision making ability, contributed to higher levels of self-esteem. #p#分頁標題#e#
Since the scientific approach of work design by Taylor to link work simplification and job specialisation with productivity (Dessler et al. 2001); Elton Mayo led a more human relations focus to work design. He, and later others such as Maslow and Herzberg argued these psychological factors could be used to motivate the employee to be more productive. Lees (1997) stated that the HRM literature is split into these two opposing approaches. This was also the basis for a study by Morgeson & Campion (2002) who asserted the bulk of the research in this area focused on motivational issues, which is in contrast with most of the modern practices, which are based on mechanistic principals. The study cited the results of similar work, by Edwards, Scully & Brtek (2000) that found job enlargement/rotation was better for motivation but required more training and the employee had to have higher basic skills. This provided a higher pay, which in turn decreased business efficiency; so the two approaches opposed each other.
The study by Morgeson & Campion extended the work of Campion and McClelland (1993), which found this was not always the case, and was the basis for them to consider ‘task clustering’ as a better form of job design to address both approaches. This was to analyse the individual job, in the context of the relationship to others in the group and the group’s perspective in the organisation. Morgeson & Campion (2002) observed that those re-designing the jobs – do so to suit the organisational or functional goals.
With reinforcement theory, the period of time that elapses between the activity and the reinforcer is a factor as to its effectiveness. Pay rises based on a satisfactory performance appraisal, which occur on a yearly basis leaves scope for periods of lesser performances early in the cycle to be overlooked, or have less impact on the employee. Bergman and Scarpello (2001) suggest appraisals are effective to maintain a standard to justify continued employment, but have little motivational quality; commission pay does encourage higher levels of performance but not in the long term. Producing opportunities for more frequent exposure to activity-specific-consequences is the alternative. However, formal assessment may not be the answer. Bergman and Scarpello (2001) suggest that the solution is self-management of performance, in addition to the reinforcement of desirable activity provided within the framework of work-teams. #p#分頁標題#e#
Conclusion 結論
This essay has discussed the term ‘employment relationship’, which is not easily or consistently defined in the literature. It means lesser or more things depending upon the perspective of the user, to describe aspects of the primary employer-employee relationship. The principals in any relationship are themselves shaped by other factors. These factors will create multiple facets to each principal, as can be seen by the evolving and changing business direction, size, norms, culture, and finally leading to organisational re-structuring. While organisations, particularly in same industries may be similar in operation; variable organisational culture and responses to changes provides a variety of arrangements with, and expectations of its employees. The employee workforce is also evolving and changing because of some of these same factors, and social justice policies. Increased opportunities are being facilitated for expanded categories of employees (disabled, youth, trainees etc), and the observed increase in casual workers. Where once these types were insignificant, there is increasing evidence (Hartman 2003 in USQ 2004) that both principals are seeing the desirability of new working arrangements.
As discussed the inter-dependant HR functions (analysis, description, appraisals, evaluation) monitor these factors and can be applied to shape, decide, attract, and facilitate new opportunities for organisational growth. This is a mutually beneficial goal, as business needs to bring their employees with them on this journey. Rewards are discussed in pay strategy, as equity theory comparisons are made within the organisation and with similar jobs in other organisations. However, the inequity is more deleterious the closer it occurs to the observer (Levine 1993). Other motivational theories were discussed and led to non-financial options to reward (and motivate) increased performance.
Finally, one aspect of planning involves analysing what is occurring in the external environment and what opportunities are present. There has been observed increases in causal workers, at the same time as recognising greater potential for organisational flexibility they bring. Re-designing the work of the organisation, to take advantage of this situation, is potentially cost effective as it also involves employee rewards that are non-financial. The changes themselves that are desirable to the future of the organisation can be used to satisfy needs missing in these new employee relationships. #p#分頁標題#e#
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